In the stinging response of the worker honeybee (Apis mellifera), rhythmic movements of the lancets on the stylet are produced by alternating contractions of a set of stinging muscles (a protractor, M198, and a retractor, M199) on each side during co-contraction of the frucula muscles (M197s) on both sides. In this study, stinging movements were elicited by tactile stimulation to the sternum in...

BACKGROUND AND AIMS Once human skin contacts stinging hairs of Urtica spp. (stinging nettles), the irritant is released and produces pain, wheals or a stinging sensation which may last for >12 h. However, the existence of pain-inducing toxins in the stinging hairs of Urtica thunbergiana has never been systematically demonstrated. Experiments were therefore conducted to identify the persistent p...

The transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) channel is one of the most well-characterized pain-inducing receptors. The purpose of this study was to predict human eye stinging of 19 baby bath and shampoo formulations by studying TRPV1 activity, as measured by increase in intracellular free Ca(2+). The NociOcular test, a novel recombinant neuronal in vitro model with high expression...

Animal toxin envenomations have medical as well as ecological significance. Toxin-producing animals are categorized under either venomous group or poisonous group. Venomous animals are capable of producing and delivering the toxin during a biting or stinging act whereas poisonous animals are those whose tissues, either in whole or in part, are toxic. [1] About 75% of the world’s animal species ...

The order Hymenoptera includes the bees, ants, and a diverse array of groups we commonly think of as "wasps." As most people were aware, many Hymenoptera can and do sting. In this chapter I will address the question of the hymenopteran sting. What is it? Which Hymenoptera sting? How does it cause pain? Is it dangerous? How can we avoid stings and treat those we do receive? Particularly importan...

Little is known about venom in young developmental stages of animals. The appearance of toxins and stinging cells during early embryonic stages in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis suggests that venom is already expressed in eggs and larvae of this species. Here, we harness transcriptomic, biochemical and transgenic tools to study venom production dynamics in Nematostella. We find that ven...