A reference electrode is a half-cell (an electrode) with stable, well-defined and highly reproducible potential. vast number of electrodes have been developed for different applications. They are briefly presented. For the common types, advantages drawbacks discussed. Practical hints daily use provided.

Different types of Ag/AgCl reference electrodes have been realised by means of thinand thick-film technique. For inner electrolyte, KCl-containing membranes have been deposited and different coatings have been used to protect the reference electrode from a fast leaching out of KCl. The stability of the potential of the reference electrodes without KClcontaining membranes in 3 M KCl was about 7 ...

Three pH electrodes in clinical use were examined--(1) antimony electrode with remote reference electrode (Synectics 0011), (2) glass electrode with remote reference electrode (Microelectrodes Inc. MI 506) and (3) combined glass electrode with integral reference electrode (Radiometer GK2801C). In vitro studies showed that both glass electrodes were similar and superior to the antimony electrode...

This paper presents an alternative strategy for manufacturing solid-state reference electrodes based on particles of graphite/silver/silver chloride synthesized by electroless deposition of metallic silver and silver chloride on graphite powder. Two kinds of reference electrodes were manufactured by mixing these particles with epoxy resin and hardener: quasi-reference and all-solid-state contai...

Flexible iridium oxide (IrOx)-based micro-electrodes were fabricated on flexible polyimide substrates using a sol-gel deposition process for utilization as integrated pseudo-reference electrodes for bio-electrochemical sensing applications. The fabrication method yields reliable miniature on-probe IrOx electrodes with long lifetime, high stability and repeatability. Such sensors can be used for...