Part 1: The Earth and its Lithosphere Chemical composition and structure of the Earth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 The structure of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Primordial chemistry: Origin of the elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Formation and evolution of the earth. . . ...

things. There was no flora, no fauna; the Earth was completely barren of life. Instead of having an atmosphere rich in nitrogen and oxygen as it is today, the atmosphere on primitive Earth was composed primarily of methane, ammonia, hydrogen gas and water vapor. The lack of a protective ozone layer resulted inhigh exposure to UV light and radiation. Earth was also extremely volcanically active ...

The earth-atmosphere stray light can lower contrast ratio and SNR of spatial optical remote sensors, or even fail the system at certain conditions. Errors in the calculation of the stray light illuminance based on point source are very large, for the satellite’s altitude is only several hundred kilometers and far less than the radius of the earth. This paper proposed a stray light illuminance c...

the quality of pressure distribution over the atmosphere of the sea level and geopotential altitude at different atmosphere layers affect on many climate and meteorology phenomena of the earth surface. one of the important meteorology phenomenon is the occurrence of frost phenomenon especially late spring frost. in this surrey, occurring late spring frost days and minimum temperature during the...

Thermodynamic disequilibrium is a necessary situation in a system in which complex emergent structures are created and maintained. It is known that most of the chemical disequilibrium, a particular type of thermodynamic disequilibrium, in Earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of life. We have developed a thermochemical model for the Martian atmosphere to analyze the disequilibrium by chemical rea...

The quality of pressure distribution over the atmosphere of the sea level and geopotential altitude at different atmosphere layers affect on many climate and meteorology phenomena of the earth surface. One of the important meteorology phenomenon is the occurrence of frost phenomenon especially late spring frost. In this surrey, occurring late spring frost days and minimum temperature during the...

Satellite and airborne optical sensors are increasingly used by scientists, and OPEN ACCESS Remote Sens. 2015, 7 1668 policy makers, and managers for studying and managing forests, agriculture crops, and urban areas. Their data acquired with given instrumental specifications (spectral resolution, viewing direction, sensor field-of-view, etc.) and for a specific experimental configuration (surfa...

We present calculations of the Cosmic X-ray background (CXB) reflection by the Earth atmosphere in the 1-1000 keV range and compare it with the reflection by the Moon and the Sun. The calculations use realistic chemical composition of the Earth atmosphere and include all relevant physical processes. An analytic approximation to the Earth X-ray albedo is provided, which should be accurate down t...

Atmosphere Earth is enveloped by a vast amount of air called the atmosphere. It is relative thin compared to the size of the earth and fades away with increasing distance from the earth's surface. The earth's atmosphere is categorized into 4 layers troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. Troposphere where all the weather takes place and stratosphere, the two closest layers to ea...

NASA's proposed Terrestrial Planet Finder, a space-based interferometer, will eventually allow spectroscopic analyses of the atmospheres of extrasolar planets. Such analyses would provide information about the existence of life on these planets. One strategy in the search for life is to look for evidence of O3 (and hence O2) in a planet's atmosphere; another is to look for gases that might be p...