The population-ecology approach (the natural-selection model) used to be a major orientation in consideration of organizational change and transformation. It is presented by its proponents as a theory distinct from structural contingency theory. This theory begins by rejecting the claim of contingency theory that organizations are adaptive. Contingency theory understands that the social and bus...

Contingency management is an effective treatment for drug addiction. The current explanation for its success is rooted in alternative reinforcement theory. We suggest that alternative reinforcement theory is inadequate to explain the success of contingency management and produce a model based on demand curves that show how little the monetary rewards offered in this treatment would affect drug ...

How are humans' subjective judgments of contingencies related to objective contingencies? Work in social psychology and human contingency learning predicts that the greater the frequency of desired outcomes, the greater people's judgments of contingency will be. Second, the learned helplessness theory of depression provides both a strong and a weak prediction concerning the linkage between subj...