Insect species are subjected to disparate selection pressure due various biotic and abiotic stresses. Management practices including the heavy use of chemical insecticides introduction insect-resistant plant cultivars have been found accelerate these processes. Clearly, natural coupled with human intervention led insect adaptations that alter phenotypes genetic structure over time, producing di...

Sap-sucking insects typically engage in obligate relationships with symbiotic bacteria that play nutritional roles in synthesizing nutrients unavailable or in scarce supply from the plant-sap diets of their hosts. Adelgids are sap-sucking insects with complex life cycles that involve alternation between conifer tree species. While all adelgid species feed on spruce during the sexual phase of th...