With regard to the second law of thermodynamics, as given by equation (6), it should be noted that the sign "is greater than" applies to the case of a system which is approaching the condition of thermodynamic equilibrium and implies a difference between "forward" and "backward" directions for the time-like coordinate x4. The equality sign, on the other hand, may characterize either a system wh...

We develop the stochastic approach to thermodynamics based on stochastic dynamics, which can be discrete (master equation) and continuous (Fokker-Planck equation), and on two assumptions concerning entropy. The first is the definition of entropy itself and the second the definition of entropy production rate, which is non-negative and vanishes in thermodynamic equilibrium. Based on these assump...

At low temperatures the configurational phase space of a macroscopic complex system (e.g., a spin-glass) of N ∼ 10 interacting particles may split into an exponential number Ωs ∼ exp(const × N) of ergodic sub-spaces (thermodynamic states). It is usually assumed that the equilibrium collective behavior of such a system is determined by its ground thermodynamic states of the minimal free-energy d...

Materials with different C/O ratios and volatile matter content (E.grandis and four pyrolysis chars of E.grandis) were used as feedstock during SCWG experiments at 450 °C and 27 MPa. Experimental gas yields and gasification efficiencies were compared to calculated thermodynamic equilibrium results to determine the effect of O/C ratio and volatile matter content on the experimental and thermodyn...

Deviations from thermodynamic equilibrium are of fundamental importance in the early universe. The examples are plentiful, for example the freeze-out of photon thermodynamic equilibrium due to hydrogen recombination [1] or the equivalent freeze-out of neutrinos slightly prior to electron-positron annihilation [2]. These phenomena have been investigated many times in the literature, but almost a...

in this study, a new adsorbent, silver nanoparticle loaded on activated carbon (ag˗np˗ac) was used for removal of acid yellow199 (ay 199) dye. this novel material was characterized and identified by different techniques such as brunauer, emmett and teller (bet), field emission scanning electron microscopy (fesem), x-ray diffraction (xrd) analysis. unique properties of this adsorbent such as hig...

A new model of non-equilibrium thermodynamic states has been investigated on the basis of the fact that all thermodynamic variables can be derived from partition functions. We have thus attempted to define partition functions for non-equilibrium conditions by introducing the concept of pseudo-temperature distributions. These pseudo-temperatures are configurational in origin and distinct from ki...