A little-known effort to conduct biological warfare occurred during the 17th century. The incident transpired during the Venetian–Ottoman War, when the city of Candia (now Heraklion, Greece) was under siege by the Ottomans (1648–1669). The data we describe, obtained from the Archives of the Venetian State, are related to an operation organized by the Venetian Intelligence Services, which aimed ...

Economic historians have recently emphasized the importance of integrating economic and historical approaches in studying institutions. The literature on the Ottoman system of taxation, however, has continued to adopt a primarily historical approach, using ad hoc categories of classification and explaining the system through its continuities with the historical precedent. This paper integrates ...

This paper is about the financial roots of education, and its main subject education designed by Muslims. The Muslims have created as a charitable institution that wherever they are located, all geographies included in this. Because accepted one their social duties basic responsibilities so knowledge can be transferred from generation to generation. Undoubtedly, this approach resulted being fre...

The article reveals the origin of Turkish-Japanese relations, and analyzes conditions, under which they were developed. Influence Russian-Japanese war (1904–1905) on Ottoman Empire is considered. First diplomatic contacts between Japan started with visits representatives Japanese authorities to Istanbul for purpose acquaintance Ottomans. As a result mutual two states their friendly relations be...