Neuropeptides are present in brain tissue as well as in cerebrospinal fluid. Studies from a variety of disciplines have demonstrated that neuropeptides have neuromodulatory activities. Such activities are apparent in the involvement of neuropeptides in the regulation of adaptive, autonomic, and endocrine functions of the brain. Neuropeptides exert their neuromodulating influences by acting as n...

Neuropeptides are signaling molecules participating in the modulation of synaptic transmission. Neuropeptides are stored in dense core synaptic vesicles, the release of which requires profound excitation. Only in the extracellular space, neuropeptides act on G-protein coupled receptors to exert a relatively slow action both preand postsynaptically. Consequently, neuropeptide modulators are idea...

The hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVN) expresses multiple neuropeptides and plays an essential role in several physiological processes. Among the brain areas directly projecting to PVN are deep structures closely related instinctive behavior. Moreover, neurons can project abundant axons downstream regions key components of stress response. Accordingly, malfunction is implicated stress-r...

Neuropeptides represent by far the most common signalling molecules in the central nervous system. They are involved in a wide range of physiological functions and can act as neurotransmitters, neuromodulators or hormones in the central nervous system and in the periphery. Accumulating evidence during the past 40 years has implicated a number of neuropeptides in various cognitive functions incl...