The activity of dopamine (DA)-containing neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is a key mechanism in mesolimbic reward processing that has modulatory effects on different diencephalic structures like hippocampus (HIP), and receives inhibitory feedback and excitatory feed forward control. In addition, within the hippocampus, DA receptors are mostly located in the dorsal part (CA1) and dopa...

This scientific commentary refers to ‘Reactive microglia enhance the transmission of exosomal α-synuclein via toll-like receptor 2’ by Xia et al. (doi:10.1093/brain/awab122).

PURPOSE OF REVIEW The intestine is highly efficient at absorbing and packaging dietary lipids onto the structural protein apoB48 for distribution throughout the body. Here, we summarize recent advances into understanding the physiological and pharmacological actions of the proglucagon-derived peptides: glucagon like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and glucagon like peptide 2 (GLP-2) on intestinal lipoprotein...

The interleukin 2 receptor (IL-2R) is known to be comprised of at least three genetically distinct subunits termed alpha, beta, and gamma. These chains can be expressed individually or in various combinations resulting in distinct receptors with different affinities for IL-2. In contrast to alpha and beta, the cell surface expression of the gamma chain protein previously has not been well-chara...

cannabinoids induce diverse responses on anxiolytic–like behaviors. moreover some studies postulated that there is a close relationship between this system and serotonergic system upon cognitive process formation. thus the aim of present study is investigation the possible role of 5-ht 1 receptor on anxiolytic–like behaviors induced by acpa in the elevated plus maze task (epm). in the present s...

Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system which its main characteristic is an inflammation and demyelination and subsequent, neural degeneration. Many studies have shown that inflammation causing neuronal demyelination. MS is the most common cause of chronic neurological disability in during youth which the prognosis is that can be death. Platelet activating fact...