O ccupational guilds have been observed for thousands of years in many economies: ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome; medieval and early modern India, Japan, Persia, Byzantium, and Europe; and nineteenth-century China, Latin America, and the Ottoman Empire. Guilds were most prevalent in manufacturing. Almost all urban craftsmen were guilded and, in parts of central and southern Europe, many rural ...

the social situation of medieval britain prior to its conquest by william,duke of normandy, in 1066 ad was so retarded. but, soon after that it wasprovided with such a great legal institutions and culture that, even today,give rise to a great surprise as to their magnificence, causing admirations byscholars. but, it raises queries regarding the original source of those legalinstitutions, for wh...

in 41 ayat of holy quran, it is discussed about child birth, formation of fetus in uterus and also its process. it led to attention of muslim scholars to this topic. they had wide researches and experiments on gynecology, fertility, infertility and childbirth. their findings are considerable even in current era. medical sciences in islamic golden age (contemporaneous with medieval age in the we...

Despite the great progress in modern medicine, traditional medicine has always been practised in the Arab-Islamic world. Cultural beliefs and practices often lead to self-care or home remedies in rural areas and consultation with traditional healers. Traditional therapies have been utilized by people in the Mediterranean region who have faith in spiritual healers, homeopaths or even many herbal...

John Fryer, m.d. (Cantab.), f.r.s., may be rightly described as the most observant and learned of all the physicians and surgeons of the East India Company in the 17th century. He came out to India in 1673 and served at various settlements in this country and Persia till 1682. During his journey to his station, Surat, he visited Fort St. George and Masulipatam on the Coromandel coast, and Goa a...