The study analyses the circumstances under which Elena Cornaro Piscopia became first woman in world to earn a Doctor degree Philosophy, she received from University of Padua 1678. author presents broader context outstanding accomplishment. She points out that, although universities did not allow women enrol study, managed doctorate thanks several favourable circumstances. Of these, emphasises t...

Introduction Today it is generally the case that urban dwellers enjoy higher life expectancy than their rural counterparts, globally. This urban advantage is partly attributable to the higher average incomes of urban dwellers, as well as superior access to public health services, including water supply and sewage disposal, and medical services. However this was not the historical norm. In the s...

We assess the relationship between land inequality and human capital at end of early modern period, focusing on individual-level evidence from Spain. Our main finding is that had already a significant negative effect formation there in late-seventeenth eighteenth centuries. argue this reflects important role social structure based farming families (as opposed to latifundia day laborers) develop...

Objective/Context: This article analyzes how long-distance travel and struggles over highway security shaped the relationship between Native communities Spanish civil ecclesiastical authorities in Oaxaca’s Villa Alta district during late seventeenth eighteenth centuries. Methodology: I engage a close reading of criminal cases murder theft on treacherous stretch Camino Real to show people took s...