With its pathophysiological characteristics strongly similar to patients with tardive dyskinesia (TD), haloperidol (HP)-induced neurotoxicity and orofacial (OD) in animal models have long been used study human TD. This aimed explore the potential protective effects of betaine (BT), a vital biochemical compound present plants, microorganisms, animals, various dietary sources. The focused on inve...

In [12] we have shown that the standard de nition of compositionality is formally vacuous; that is, any semantics can be easily encoded as a compositional semantics. We have also shown that when compositional semantics is required to be "systematic", it is possible to introduce a non-vacuous concept of compositionality. However, a technical de nition of systematicity was not given in that paper...

1. In aged male Sprague-Dawley rats (22 months) with a selective loss of D2- but not of D1-dopamine receptors, stereotyped behaviour induced by 0.5 mg kg-1 apomorphine was increased and prolonged in comparison with young (4 month) counterparts. This suggested a pharmacokinetic effect rather than a pharmacodynamic change. 2. The syndrome of non-stereotyped behavioural responses to the selective ...

A novel method of oral drug administration was used in a neuroleptic animal study. Seventy male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly subdivided into four groups, which were treated with clozapine, haloperidol, diazepam or a vehicle solution (5% sucrose solution). Oral drug treatment was achieved by training the rats to drink the drug of choice mixed with five percent sucrose or vehicle solution fr...

Biologists that study mammals continue to discuss the evolution of and functional variation in jaw-muscle activity during chewing. A major barrier to addressing these issues is collecting sufficient in vivo data to adequately capture neuromuscular variation in a clade. We combine data on jaw-muscle electromyography (EMG) collected during mastication from 14 species of primates and one of treesh...

The developmental course of early chewing has rarely been studied, although such knowledge is essential for understanding childhood feeding and swallowing disorders. The goal of this investigation was to quantitatively describe age- and consistency-related changes in jaw kinematics during early chewing development. An optical-motion tracking system was used to record jaw movements during chewin...

Specific activity of the human medial pterygoid muscle in relation to jaw movements and occlusion during mastication and clenching tasks is unclear. EMG activity of the medial pterygoid, masseter, anterior, and posterior temporal muscles was recorded simultaneously with three dimensional incisor point movement of the mandible. Data were sampled and analyzed by an on-line computer system. Patter...