Prior research showed that mere instructions about the contingency between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) can generate fear reactions to the CS. Little is known, however, about the extent to which actual CS-US contingency experience adds anything beyond the effect of contingency instructions. Our results extend previous studies on this topic in that it included f...

Principles of a dynamic, dyadic systems view of mother-infant face-to-face communication, which considers self- and interactive processes in relation to one another, were tested. The process of interaction across time in a large low-risk community sample at infant age 4 months was examined. Split-screen videotape was coded on a 1-s time base for communication modalities of attention, affect, or...

Decision-making in the real world presents the challenge of requiring flexible yet prompt behavior, a balance that has been characterized in terms of a trade-off between a slower, prospective goal-directed model-based (MB) strategy and a fast, retrospective habitual model-free (MF) strategy. Theory predicts that flexibility to changes in both reward values and transition contingencies can deter...

The item-specific proportion congruent (ISPC) effect is the observation that the Stroop effect is larger for words that are presented mostly in congruent colours (e.g., BLUE presented 75% of the time in blue), and smaller for words that are presented mostly in a given incongruent colour (e.g., YELLOW presented 75% of the time in orange). One account of the ISPC effect, the modulation hypothesis...

Discrete representations of systems are usual in theoretical computer science and they have many benefits. Unfortunately they also suffer from the problem of state space explosion, sometimes termed the curse of dimensionality. In recent years, research has shown that there are cases in which we can reap the benefits of discrete representation during system description but then gain from more ef...

A missing element in discussions of ethical leadership is: What happens to enforcement of ethics if it is the managers who are behaving unethically? In this article we address this question by describing a framework of upward ethical leadership. This framework expands conceptualizations of leadership beyond top-down models to a view that considers employees to be active participants in the lead...