General discussion and summary

HPV infections have been associated with different malignancies, including cancers of the cervix, vulva, vagina, anus, penis, and some head and neck cancers. Although the incidence of cervical cancer has been decreased by population based cytology screening in the western world, new cases of cervical cancer still occur. The success of treatment by surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy or a combination there-of is often high in lower stages of the disease but decreases at higher stages. Therefore new treatment modalities are needed. In this context, immunotherapeutic strategies may hold promise.