Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures

of prosocial behavior and related socialization conditions are well documented in several studies (Eisenberg, 1986; Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Hoffman, 2000; Strayer & Roberts, 1989; Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow, & Wagner, 1992). In general, sympathy fosters prosocial behavior and distress inhibits it (Eisenberg et al., 1989). All these studies were carried out in Western countries. A meta-analysis by Miller, Kozu, and Davis (2001) across various samples from different cultures (14 Western and non-Western countries) demonstrates a positive relation between empathy/sympathy1 and prosocial responding in adults and children. However, the authors neither report comparisons of mean differences nor specify which cultural groups and how many samples were included in their analyses. On the basis of this study, no clear conclusion can be drawn regarding the relations between sympathy and prosocial behavior. Therefore, the main goal of the present study is to test the relations between sympathy/distress and prosocial behavior with children from two Western (Israel and Germany) and two non-Western cultures (Malaysia and Indonesia). Some researchers argue that a universal human capacity for prosocial emotions and prosocial behavior exists as part of altruism (Hoffmann, 2000; MacDonald, 1984). However, such a universal ability for altruism cannot predict universality of prosocial behavior in different cultural contexts because (1) such behavior includes evaluations based on cultural values, self-construal, and moral beliefs; (2) cultural differences in prosocial behavior are documented (Eisenberg, 1992; Whiting & Whiting, 1975); and (3) the concept of prosocial behavior consists of a variety of forms that makes a generalization difficult even at the individual level. For example, giving and sharing are two qualities of prosocial behavior that are not primarily evoked by emotional reactions. The display of such prosocial behavior affords a perspective of fairness and equality which implies a more advanced cognitive development (Hoffman, 2000). In the present study, we focus on emotionrelated prosocial behavior (e.g., comforting, helping). Similar to other studies in this field involving preschoolers, an observational method is used. This method is more Sympathy, distress, and prosocial behavior of preschool children in four cultures