D-amino acid-containing peptides in Conus venoms

-amino acids have been documented in relatively few gene products, including peptides found in Conus venoms. The present work provides an overview of various D-amino acid-containing Conus peptides (conopeptides or conotoxins), such as the contryphans, conomarphins, conophans, conomap and certain I1-superfamily conotoxins. Characterization of their sequences and structures, as well as the known physiological targets are presented. Some contryphans and one I1-superfamily conotoxin were found to bind specific ion channels, thus making them useful ligands to elucidate further the ion channel subtypes. Conus venom has notable diversity of peptides, of which the Damino acid-containing peptides could serve as lead compounds or important scaffolds for the development of neuropharmacological agents. Future research will hopefully elucidate the specific physiological targets and mechanisms of action, as well as the exact biological roles in Conus venoms, of more members of these conopeptide families.