Developing Innovative Systems: Creative Ideation

This paper addresses the identification of creative criteria to support the development of innovative systems. In idea generation, criteria that characterise creative ideas are: fluency, variety, innovativeness and usefulness. Creative criteria have been defined at a very generic level, and we have found very little indication of how in particular, the concept of innovativeness is operationalised. Trying to refine creative criteria in a specific domain however is very pertinent. Practically, it facilitates idea generation by allowing the selection, combination and elaboration of ideas that possess relevant characteristics. We explore thus creativity as innovativeness through a case study, the cybercartography project. The results of idea-generation sessions for this project provided insights into the definition of creative ideas. To refine the concept of innovativeness, we turn to the theory of aesthetic experiences based on the work of Dewey. Properties of aesthetic experiences are discussed in relation with the cybercartography project. The examination of aesthetic experiences led to the definition of innovativeness attributes as affect and dynamic inquiry. ew technologies trigger continuous development in areas such as entertainment, art and education. In museum and galleries visitors can interact with kiosks, websites or CD-ROMs. Website content ranges from information on specific museum exhibits to more interactive features such as art quizzes. Some offer more vivid learning experiences such as the museum of American history, where users can N learn how transportation transformed America, and shaped landscapes, lives, and communities. CD-ROMs or DVDs enable users to browse through large exhibits of multimedia clips or collections of objects. In virtual environments, visitors to a science museum can assume the perspective of different species and walk, fly or swim through their typical habitats. Computer agents for small devices are developed as guides to create a richer and more personal experience. Interactive objects in exhibits tell their story thereby enhancing visitors’ experiences. Data can be collected from museum tours to be shared and explored further at home or at school. Changes in technology lead to a rapid expansion of museum systems, the search for new concepts and new ways of interacting. Developing “proofs of concept” from ideas to storyboards, varying in degree of completeness, to extend the scope for interaction, engagement and creativity, is an important requirement for this domain. In this paper we explore the generation of creative ideas, and we address the very early development stage of interactive and innovative systems for science museums and education. In order to help design teams in the process of generating, elaborating, and evolving ideas into concepts, we need to identify criteria that support creative innovation. Practically, during the design process, design teams need to define creative criteria and provide guidance to help designers to move from the raw results of idea-generation toward emerging design solutions. Practitioners need to be able to identify the tools and practices that enhance creativity and minimise production losses (i.e. diminish the productivity of idea generation sessions). To do so requires a clear understanding of the value of ideas generated with a specific method or tool. The aim of this paper is to identify creative criteria and identify attributes that support innovativeness in idea-generation. To do so we first review creative criteria in idea generation then we focus on the creative criterion of innovativeness. This criterion is discussed in a specific context through the cybercartography project and through the application Dewey’s theory on aesthetic experiences. We first review key criteria related to creativity and quality of ideas in idea-generation. In particular, the generic nature of criteria for creativity as innovativeness is highlighted. To find out more about what characteristics a novel or original ideas might have, we explore creativity in the context of the cybercartography project. We describe briefly the cybercartography project. Thereafter results of idea-generation sessions are examined in connection with creativity. To characterise further the concept of innovativeness, we turn to the work of Dewey. We show how the application of Dewey’s work in science teaching helps us to analyse and select ideas in our project and define creative attributes for innovativeness. Finally, we present issues for future research. 1. Criteria for evaluating creative ideas The literature on creativity assessment related to ideas is very limited, tending to focus on prototypes (Shah and co, 2002). However, measures of creativity and idea effectiveness are key concepts in studies associated with brainstorming and creativity support systems. These measures have been extracted from a sample of the most recent papers about idea generation and are shown in table 1 below. Numerous attempts have been made to modify and improve idea generation to minimise production losses (Bakki and Pinsonneault 2001; Sosik and co. 1998; Kramer and co. 1997; and Tacher 2001). Different ways of stimulating creativity have also been explored such as introducing visual stimuli in brainstorming sessions (Hender and co. 2001; Shah and co. (2003); and Malaga 1999). Most of these studies are controlled laboratory experiments in which the effectiveness of a tool, process or method is judged on the basis of ideas produced during idea generation. Dependant variables (i.e. quantity and quality) on which different experimental conditions are compared, are used in this paper as criteria for defining creativity in idea generation. In table 1, all the criteria used as a measure of creative performances are listed. A definition for each criterion, when available, is also given. Table 1: Creative performances Study Criteria definitions Sosik, Avolio & Kahai (1998) Fluency, Originality, Flexibility Fluency is measured as the total number of solution units generated (Quantity) Originality is measured as the statistical infrequency of solutions units. Flexibility is measured as the number of different approaches used in generating solutions units. Malaga (1999) Quantity Creativity Quality no definition, overall criteria B a k k i & Pinsonneault (2001) Quantity Originality, Feasibility, Effectiveness Originality is the extent to which an idea is novel, out of the ordinary Feasibility is the extent to which an idea is precise and the ease with which it can be implemented. Effectiveness is the extent to which the idea helps to solve the problem. Tacher (2001) Quantity Creativity, Usefulness no definition, overall criteria Hender, Rodgers, Dean, & Nunamaker (2001) Quantity Creativity (originality Paradigm relatedness) Originality: an idea is most original if no one has expressed it before Paradigm relatedness: the degree to which an idea preserves or modifies a paradigm Shah, Vargas Hernandez (2003) Quantity Novelty, Variety, Quality Novelty is how unusual or unexpected an idea is compared to other ideas. Variety is a measure of the explored solution space Quality describes the feasibility of an idea and how close it comes to meet the design specifications. It has to be noted that in Sosik and co. (1998), a solution unit corresponds to an idea. In Malaga (1999)’s experiment, three independent judges were asked to rate the creativity and quality off each idea. Unfortunately, the author does not provide a definition of either of these. Similarly, Tacher (2001) does not define his criteria. In Hender and co. (2001), creativity was operationalised as two criteria: originality and paradigm relatedness (see table 1 for definition). The definitions highlight some similarities between these criteria. Creative criteria fall into four categories: (1) fluency (or quantity), (2) a measure of variety in the idea-generation session, (3) innovativeness, and (4) usefulness of the generated ideas. Fluency (or quantity) refers to the number of idea generated. Variety indicates the scope of the idea space; it is used to determine differences between ideas. Innovativeness refers to novelty or originality of ideas. Usefulness refers to the implementation of these ideas. These criteria are discussed in more depth, in the reminder of this section, showing their values and limitations. 1.1 Fluency of ideas Fluency (or quantity) is used mostly in the brainstorming literature to compare the effectiveness of for example, software tools or creative methods. Fluency seems a simple concept. However, it is not always clear what is counted or added together. There seems to be an agreement on the need to distinguish between raw data and unique ideas (Cooper and co, 1998). When counting the total number of unique ideas, duplicated ideas are eliminated. Initially, the rationale for this measure was the assumption that more ideas increase the chance of better ideas. This view has been criticised by Briggs and her colleagues (1997), who found that the higher the quality of an idea the less relevant quantity is. That is, the relationship between the number and the quality of ideas is non monotone. Moreover, when using this only this criterion as a measure of creativity, for equivalent results with two creativity methods, we have no ways of knowing which kinds of ideas were generated. Thus fluency gives an indication of the productivity of an idea generation session but it should be combined with other creative criteria. 1.2 Creativity as variety This measure includes flexibility (Sosik, and co. 1998), variety (Shah and co. 2003) or paradigm relatedness (Hender and co. 2001) as defined in table 1. It describes the scope of the idea space and centres on differentiation between ideas. Nagasundaram and Bostrom (1995) discuss creativity in terms of paradigm relatedness: paradigm preserving ideas (PP) and paradigm modifying ideas (PM). Paradigm modifying ideas are ideas that introduce new elements in the problem context. They distinguish between ideas that modify (alter the relationship between elements of the problem), extend (introduce new elements in the problem) and ideas which do both. PP ideas refine an existing element in the problem. Apple’s graphical user interface when first introduced was a transformational idea (PM). Ideas for animating icons to make them more self-evident are PP ideas. Analysis of creative variety can increase our understanding of the problem and it is specifically interesting for comparing creativityenhancing techniques, as they can impose a structure on the ideageneration process (McFadzean 2001; Bostrom and Nagasundaram 1998). Practically, when developing interactive systems, this criterion does not provide any indication for selecting ideas that will be elaborated into concepts or solutions. 1.3 Creativity as innovativeness Innovativeness refers to novelty, uniqueness or originality of ideas, or to the rarity of ideas. Innovativeness can be considered within the ideageneration session, within a specific context or domain, or in general. The notions of originality and novelty are difficult to distinguish. Further distinction between them needs to be determined. However, that is beyond the scope of this paper. As discussed earlier, creative criteria are not always defined. Moreover, creativity as originality or novelty has been defined at a very generic level, and we have found very little indication of how this concept is operationalised. It is unclear which attributes a new creative idea must possess. Innovativeness is a very important criterion to move from the raw results of an idea generation session toward emerging solutions. Design teams need indications off how to select an original idea. Some kinds of original ideas might be more desirable in a specific context. Shah and co. (2002) describe novelty attributes based on vehicle properties (e.g. mechanisms for propelling transportation vehicles). However such definitions are not adapted for ideas outside of the engineering field. Trying to refine creativity in a specific domain however is pertinent. Practically, it facilitates idea generation by allowing the selection, combination and elaboration of ideas that possess relevant characteristics. Moreover, we might want to find and use creativeenhancing methods that stimulate specific attributes of innovativeness. To find out more about what characteristics a novel or original ideas might have in multimedia environments, we explore creativity in the context of the cybercartography project. Cybercartography is a project that has both an educational and a scientific purpose. Cybercartography concepts are developed in a multimedia environment, and it is thought that creativity criteria defined in this context will also be relevant to other interactive systems. Innovation is an important criterion in our project and of many museum and educative applications. 1.4 Usefulness of creative ideas Usefulness is defined as ideas that solve a problem and that can be implemented. In this category, we have grouped criteria related to feasibility (Shah and co. 2003; Bakki and Pinsonneault 2001) and effectiveness (Bakki and Pinsonneault 2001). It can be argued that usefulness is not directly a creative criteria but an important aspect of creative performances. In practice, developers must be able eventually to implement a creative idea or solution. It is thought that applying the usefulness criteria to evaluate ideas may be premature at the very early stage of idea generation as ideas are still primarily nascent. Using usefulness might inhibit creativity. Feasibility is more technologically dependant and might not be relevant at this stage. Thus usefulness is thought to be a more appropriate consideration for assessing ideas which have been developed into solutions. 2. Innovativeness in the context of cybercartography In the reminder of the paper we refine the creative criterion of innovativeness. We discuss innovativeness within the cybercartography project. 2.1 Cybercartography and Student on Ice Cybercartography is a large project that aims to explore new uses of cartography in the digital age (Taylor, 2002). The project tests the application and theory of cybercartography by providing a wide range of topics of interest to society and test new ways of engaging users. Cybercartography involves the transformation of static visual maps to include dynamic data and multi-sensory information (e.g. audio, tactile or smell). Cybercartography transforms all kinds of cultural, socioeconomic and environmental information into interactive representation, allowing the users to explore spatial patterns and relationship into new ways” (Taylor, 2003). One goal of this project is to create two new cybercartographic products, a cybercartographic Atlas of Antarctica and Canada’s Trade with the world. Antarctica has an increasing scientific and environmental value. The trade atlas of Antarctica has also an important educational role. This project covers the development of tools to support the Students on Ice (SOI) and finding ways of making their educational experience more engaging. SOI enables us to look at creativity in a specific context. SOI are high school students who do a field trip in Antarctica. To participate in the SOI programme, students have to meet a number of requirements including giving presentations about their expedition and learning experiences to various community groups. To address issues with students’ presentations, such as to make them interesting and fun, it was decided to focus on the form that the student’s presentations could take before finding how to support students. Students’ presentations could take place in the real or virtual world. They open up to creative and innovative solutions which are particularly relevant to this project, to raise the awareness of cybercartography issues and to stimulate interests in the SOI programme. It is envisaged to develop some of these ideas as proof of concepts. In order to explore directions for development and get a better understanding of how this activity could be performed, short idea generation sessions were set–up within our laboratory. Participants, all of whom had a basic knowledge of the cybercartography project and had some experience in brainstorming, were divided into two groups. Their task consisted in brainstorming ways for students to convey their experiences and knowledge. The instructions given to participants were kept to a minimum however we specified that presentations of experiences and knowledge had to be engaging and motivating for audiences. We did not give them any technological constraints. In a following session, participants were also asked to classify resulting ideas, to separate ideas as good or bad, and to explain what qualified a good idea. Participants’ definitions and descriptions of good ideas gave us valuable indications for characterising creativity. 2.2 Assessing ideas The characteristics of good ideas within the idea generation sessions are presented. Good ideas were defined conceptually and in the problem context. The classification and definition of good ideas give us indications for characterising creativity in this context. 2.2.1 Characteristics of good ideas Good ideas were defined at a meta-level. For one group, good ideas were “happening ideas, ideas that should grab us, that are audience oriented and ideas that are effective and practical”. Good ideas were defined by the other group at three levels: form, effectiveness, and creativity. Good ideas are ideas which were well defined or wellformulated; someone evaluating a specific idea should understand it. Good ideas are effective. A good idea was defined as how does it meet goals, how many goals does it meet, and does it use resource well. Good ideas are also creative, they are interesting and exciting. They have potential: are they given obvious solutions or do they complement other successful ideas (Participants). Within the project context, good ideas were classified in one case as belonging to three groups: party and events ideas, media ideas, and interactive ideas. Particpants remarks that party and events, such as a birthday party or Winterlude, fit with people needs for entertainment. Moreover these events are sparkly fun. These ideas actively involve the audience and allow social interaction. Winterlude is a Canadian winter festival which includes skating, ice sculptures and music. Media ideas consisted of play, poster and television show. They were characterised by participants as passive media events but events that get the word out. These ideas fill an important the role for raising the standing of the SOI programme in the general public. Play in this instance refers to a theatre play, or a skit. The last group, interactive ideas involve users and allow control over information and content (e.g. a travelogue which includes audio-visuals such as videos, sounds, and stories from people). The other participants simply distributed ideas into two groups (good and bad). The group separated ideas which were interesting and fun but also acceptable in the context of the project. The good ideas were related to games and plays (e.g. a skit based on some interesting experiences) and the use of metaphor (e.g. a house where in each room is a different concept). The sample from this group has indeed a large number of ideas related to games (see table 3).