The Relationships Among Competitiveness, Age and Ability In Distance Runners

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships suggested by general achievement motivation literature and the popular literature in sport using the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ). The current study examined if faster runners are more competitive than slower runners, if older athletes were less competitive than younger athletes, and if faster runners were more goal oriented than slower runners. Distance runners (n=80), ranging from 10 to 61 years old completed race packets containing a cover letter, consent forms, the SOQ and a demographic questionnaire. Runners averaged 32.9 years of age and reported levels of competitiveness and goal orientation consistent with previous research. Results indicated that competitiveness and age were negatively related (r = -.44, p < 001) and competitiveness and personal best times for all race distances were positively associated (r = .28, p < .05 to .33, p < .01). Ability and goal orientation were unrelated. In conclusion, both ability and age, in addition to a variety of significant social and cognitive correlates, may contribute to the development and decline of competitiveness. Future research should examine the way that competitiveness and related cognitions develop and wane over the life span. Achievement motivation has received much attention in the sport psychology literature (Roberts, 1992). In particular, Atkinson's (1964; 1974) theory of achievement motivation has been examined extensively (Gill & Deeter, 1988; Martin & Gill, 1991a). Achievement motivation research in sport, based on Atkinson's (1974) theory, has been made possible by the development of the Sport Orientation Questionnaire (SOQ) (Gill & Deeter, 1988). With the advent of the SOQ sport psychology researchers are able to investigate the sport specific form of achievement motivation; competitiveness. In addition, the SOQ also assesses competitive orientation, or the way in which athletes usually direct their motivation towards specific goals. The win orientation subscale assesses the degree to which athletes pursue outcome goals such as winning whereas the goal R. C. Eklund, J. J. Martin, and A. L. Smith DIGITALCOMMONS@WSU | 1994 3 orientation subscale indicates the degree to which subjects endorse performance or mastery goals such as trying to run a particular time. Research using the SOQ has suggested that adolescent male runners are more competitive than females (Martin & Gill, 1991a) and that American, Filipino, and Taiwanese athletes report similar levels of competitiveness (Kang, Gill, Acevedo, & Deeter, 1990; Martin & Gill, in press). In addition, competitiveness has distinguished between students entering competitive and noncompetitive activity classes (Gill & Deeter, 1988; Gill & Dezwaltowski, 1988). Unfortunately, research examining competitiveness has yet to look at important relationships predicted by achievement motivation theory and empirical questions suggested by anecdotal observations of sport and physical activity. Specifically, achievement motivation theory suggests that motivation is associated with behavior choice, intensity, and persistence. In a sporting context, for example, athletes who consistently seem to play hard and rarely concede defeat are often described as highly motivated or "competitive" by the media. Ultimately, these types of athletes are thought to perform better than their peers, in part, because of their competitive attitude. Thus, the first purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between the sport specific form of achievement motivation; competitiveness, and running success. Stated differently, are faster runners more competitive than slower runners? Anecdotal evidence also suggests that older athletes may be less competitive than younger athletes. For instance, popular literature often suggests that older athletes suffer performance decrements partly because they have become less competitive or have redirected their competitiveness to other avenues. Thus, the second purpose of the present study was to determine if competitiveness and age were negatively related in distance runners. Finally, applied sport psychologists often advocate performance goals, which a goal orientation provides, on the belief that they lead to superior performance (Burton, 1989; Gould, 1986). Goal oriented athletes tend to focus on performance goals and work by Vealey (1986) suggested that elite figure skaters strongly endorsed a performance orientation. Holding such an orientation helps athletes focus on realistic and controllable performance goals which promotes self-confidence and reduces cognitive anxiety. However, no research has examined if goal orientation and ability are related in runners. Thus, the third purpose of Competitiveness, Age, and Ability in Distance Runners 4 DIGITALCOMMONS@WSU | 1994 the current study was to examine if a goal orientation was positively associated with ability. In other words, are faster runners more goal oriented than slower runners.