Kicking Development by Children in Grades K - 8 : A Multi - Cohort Longitudinal Study

This study examined developmental change associated with mature kicking by children in grades K-8. We tested children (Grades k-8) on the kicking subtest of the Ohio State University Scale of Intra-Gross Motor Assessment (OSU-SIGMA) 5 times over 9 years. Hierarchical nonlinear modeling was used to analyze the data. The principal findings included: a) significant differences in mean initial status (intercept) and growth rate (slope) for the k-8 and 4-8 cohorts; b) no sex differences among any of the cohorts in either initial status or growth rate; and c) a significant association between soccer participation and mature kicking performance. Kicking Development by Children in Grades K-8: A MultiCohort Longitudinal Study Kicking is essentially a specialized manipulative skill in which the foot strikes an object (Gabbard, 2004). According to Gabbard, place kicking (stationary ball) is the foundational skill upon which other skills such as kicking a moving ball, dribbling, and punting are developed. Given its common application in physical education, sport, and informal play, this investigation focused on the place kick. In place kicking, the child approaches the ball from a run or rapid walk. The final step before ball contact involves an elongated stride by the support leg. At the same time, the kicking leg is flexed at the knee and hyperextended at the hip. Cocking the leg this way permits a powerful application of force to the stationary ball (Gabbard, 2004; Payne & Isaacs, 2002). Additionally, mature kicking requires motor planning, foot-eye coordination, and balance. In terms of developmental sequence, Gesell (1940) reported that a two-year-old child could actually kick a ball as opposed to the typical 18-month-old who simply walks into it. Sinclair (1973) found that rudimentary kicking (i.e., The ball is kicked a distance at least equal to its circumference) is usually present by age two years, while the basic kicking pattern, including a preparatory back swing of the kicking foot, is usually attained by age 4. Deach (1950) identified four stages of kicking development characterized, in the most advanced stage, by greater extension of the hip and flexion of the knee, a backward lean of the trunk prior to contact, and compensatory adjustments of the arms during follow-through. Similarly, Haubenstricker, Seefeldt, Fountain, and Sapp (1981) observed a sequence of development that included, in the advanced stage, a rapid forward extension of the lower leg, increased armleg opposition, and pronounced follow-through with a hop on the support leg. According to Gabbard (2004), most children are physically capable of mature form in the place kick by age 5 or 6. However, Ulrich (2000) reported that only 62% of the children in his Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2) standardization sample actually achieved all the components of mature kicking by age 8. The issue of sex differences in kicking development has not yet been resolved. For instance, Haubenstricker et al. (1981) reported that 60% of boys achieved mature kicking patterns by 87 months while 60% of girls had attained mature development in kicking within approximately 100 months. However, in a more recent study of kicking development by children in grades K-8, Butterfield and Loovis (1994) reported generally equal kicking performances between boys and girls; the only significant difference was better performance by sixth grade boys. Butterfield and Loovis further noted that mature kicking was not associated with organized soccer participation by children in their initial cross-sectional sample. Given the importance of mature kicking to sport participation (e.g., soccer, American football) and everyday play, longitudinal data is needed to determine the factors that influence its course of development. This study examined developmental change associated with mature kicking by children in grades K-8. In so doing, we addressed the following specific research questions: a) What are the characteristics of individual growth rates in mature kicking development? b) Are changes in kicking development associated with age, sex, or participation in organized soccer?