Navigation in hypertext: A critical review of the concept

With the advent of hypertext it has become widely accepted that the departure from the so-called " linear " structure of paper increases the likelihood of readers or users becoming lost. In this paper we will discuss this aspect of hypertext in terms of its validity, the lessons to be learned from the psychology of navigation and the applicability of the navigation metaphor to the hypertext domain. 1. IS NAVIGATION A PROBLEM? There is a striking consensus among many of the " experts " in the field that navigation is the single greatest difficulty for users of hypertext. Frequent reference is made to " getting lost in hyperspace " (e.g. Conklin 1987, McAleese 1989), and Hammond and Allinson (1989) speak for many when they say: " Experience with using hypertext systems has revealed a number of problems for users..... First, users get lost... Second, users may find it difficult to gain an overview of the material... Third, even if users know specific information is present they may have difficulty finding it " (p294). In the following section we will discuss what is known about the psychology of navigation in physical environments and show how this might have relevance to the 'virtual' worlds of information space. Individuals possess schemata or models of the physical environment in which they find themselves. This is acquired from experience and affords a basic orienting frame of reference for navigatory purposes. Thus, we soon acquire schemata of towns and cities so that we know what to expect when we find ourselves in one: busy roads, numerous buildings, shopping, residential and industrial areas, many people, churches, pubs, etc. According to Downs and Stea (1977) such frames of reference exist at all levels of scale