Effects of a cognitive specific imagery intervention on the soccer skill performance of young athletes: Age group comparisons

Objectives: The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of a cognitive specific (CS) imagery intervention on the soccer skill performance of young athletes aged 7e14 years and determine if performance varied with age. Design: Participants were 143 soccer athletes belonging to 16 different teams. Teams were randomly assigned to either a cognitive specific (CS) or motivational general-arousal imagery intervention. Methods: Athletes were administered the SIQ-C and tested on the soccer skill to determine baseline performance. Following their imagery intervention, athletes were tested on the same soccer skill, and completed the SIQ-C a second time. Results: The results indicated that only the younger athletes (7e10 years) receiving CS imagery performed faster following their intervention. Moreover, only the 7e8 year old athletes in the CS imagery condition significantly increased their use of CS imagery over time. Conclusions: These findings suggest that young athletes who use CS imagery will benefit from a CS imagery intervention, thus implying that mental skills training should begin at a young age if athletes are to maximize the benefits of such training. 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Imagery has been shown to be an important mental skill for children (Li-Wei, Qi-Wei, Orlick, & Zitzelsberger, 1992; MunroeChandler & Hall, 2004; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, & Shannon, 2005). Despite the recent surge of research examining young athletes’ use of imagery, there are still gaps in the literature indicating the need for continued research in this area (MunroeChandler, Hall, Fishburne, & Strachan, 2007). In particular, there is a lack of imagery intervention studies with participants under 14 years of age. By examining children’s use of imagery in an intervention study, a greater understanding of the impact of imagery on sport performance during childhood and early adolescence can be gained. The positive aspects of imagery use may also lead to a better overall sporting experience for young athletes and, ultimately, their continued involvement in sport (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2005). While virtually all adult athletes report using imagery to some extent (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990), researchers have found athletes of higher skill levels employ all functions of imagery more frequently than athletes participating at lower skill levels. For example, Salmon, Hall, and Haslam (1994) demonstrated that elite soccer players more frequently used imagery than non-elite players. Moreover, athletes use imagery for five primary purposes (functions; Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998). The five functions of imagery are: cognitive general (CG; images of strategies of play or routines), cognitive specific (CS; images of specific sport skills), motivational specific (MS; images related to an individual’s goals), motivational general-arousal (MG-A; images associated with arousal and stress) and, motivational general-mastery (MG-M; images of being mentally tough, in control, and self-confident). Recently, Munroe-Chandler et al. (2007) investigated young (7e14 years) athletes’ imagery use competing in team and individual sports. All age groups reported using all five functions of imagery. Results also revealed that children (7e10 years) reported using less MG-A and MG-M imagery than their older counterparts (11e14 years). This could be due, in part, to the fact that as children age, their long-term memory improves, allowing them to acquire and retain knowledge with less difficulty (Santrock & Yussen, 1992). It was proposed that further research is needed in order to truly understand the effects of age on young athletes’ use of imagery. * Corresponding author. Faculty of Human Kinetics, University of Windsor, 401 Sunset Avenue, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada. Fax: þ1 519 973 7056. E-mail address: [email protected] (K.J. Munroe-Chandler).