Faculty job satisfaction across gender and discipline

It is projected that by 2014 colleges, universities, and professional schools will witness an employment growth of 34.3% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005). Thus, issues of faculty satisfaction, retention, and persistence will become increasingly important for university administrators and education policy makers. The need to study faculty satisfaction at universities also stems from the fact that the intellectual and social structures of higher education are changing over time. Increasingly, women and minorities are more likely to occupy higher ranks of the professoriate. The purpose of this research is to explore and compare the job satisfaction rates of faculty members employed in research institutions with special attention paid to differences across gender and disciplines. The study employs data from the 2003 Survey of Doctorate Recipients, which is a biennially collected survey of doctoral awardees and is funded by the National Science Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc on behalf of Western Social Science Association. As senior faculty members retire at the leading U.S. universities over the next decade, it is increasingly likely that they will be replaced by younger faculty members who are women, under-represented minorities or foreign-born scholars. This changing landscape of faculty members at U.S. universities will require that university administrators deal with issues related to faculty job satisfaction across a variety of personal and professional dimensions (Okpara, Squillace, & Erondu, 2005; Tack & Patitu, 1992). The purpose of this study is to analyze the The use of National Science Foundation (NSF) data does not imply NSF endorsement of the research methods or conclusions contained in this report. ∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 212 650 7357; fax: +1 212 650 5865. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Sabharwal), [email protected] (E.A. Corley). 1 Tel.: +1 602 496 0462. 2 After August 1, 2009, corresponding author address: Assistant Professor, The University of Texas at Dallas, Public Affairs Program, 800 W. Campbell Road, WT17, Richardson, Texas 75080-3021, USA. Tel.: +1 480 236 4729; fax: +1 972 883 4939. E-mail address:[email protected]. 0362-3319/$ – see front matter Published by Elsevier Inc on behalf of Western Social Science Association. doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2009.04.015 540 M. Sabharwal, E.A. Corley / The Social Science Journal 46 (2009) 539–556 job satisfaction of U.S. faculty members that are employed in universities, with a particular focus on gender and disciplinary differences. Some previous studies have focused on the job satisfaction of faculty; however, little previous research has explored both gender and disciplinary differences as we do here. For example, most gender-based satisfaction studies have focused only on natural science and engineering fields (Callister, 2006; Ginther, 2004; Long, Allison, & McGinnis, 1993). The study of faculty satisfaction rates is important because dissatisfaction with any aspect of a faculty position can result in decreased productivity and quality of work (Tack & Patitu, 1992). Another reason why job satisfaction has been extensively researched is that most individuals spend a large part of their lives at work. Therefore, a detailed understanding of job satisfaction is the key to improving the well-being of a large number of working individuals (Gruneberg, 1979). For the analysis in this manuscript, we use the National Science Foundation’s 2003 Survey of Doctorate Recipients (SDR) dataset. This dataset allows us to group faculty members into distinctive disciplinary affiliations and, therefore, study the gender differences that exist within (and across) each group. According to Hagedorn (2000), disciplinary differences are similar to gender and ethnic differences because groups that are alike share common attributes and a common culture. Discipline-specific research is also important in determining faculty turnover and retention as demonstrated in a recent study by Xu (2008). Although this study does not measure the direct impact of job satisfaction on retention, it is an important step in that direction. A deeper understanding of these similarities and differences can help university administrators and academic directors identify (and enhance) the factors that lead to increased levels of faculty job satisfaction within and across disciplines. 1. Job satisfaction for faculty members While the majority of previous job satisfaction studies have focused on industrial and organizational settings, there is much less literature on job satisfaction levels of academic faculty members. Tack and Patitu (1992) performed a count of the number of articles indexed within the research databases ERIC and PsycINFO during the period of 1970–1992 on the topic of job satisfaction. They found that only 13.7% of all satisfaction articles were focused on faculty job satisfaction. According to Pearson and Seiler (1983, p. 36) “this area has not received attention because a high level of job satisfaction generally has been presumed to exist in a university setting.” Several demographic, institutional, and personal factors have been shown to impact job satisfaction levels for faculty members. A large number of researchers have used a combination of variables such as gender, ethnicity, job achievement, nature of work, salary, collegial relationships, and rank and tenure to study their impact on faculty job satisfaction. We will briefly explore the most important of these variables for our study. 1.1. Gender as an explanatory variable The majority of studies that focus on faculty satisfaction have explored the relationship between satisfaction and gender (August & Waltman, 2004; Bilimoria et al., 2006; Callister, 2006; Hagedorn, 2000; Hult, Callister, & Sullivan, 2005; Okpara et al., 2005; Olsen, Maple, & M. Sabharwal, E.A. Corley / The Social Science Journal 46 (2009) 539–556 541 Stage, 1995; Oshagbemi, 1997; Ropers-Huilman, 2000; Sax, Hagedorn, Arredondo, & Dicrisi, 2002; Settles, Cortina, Malley, & Stewart, 2006; Tack & Patitu, 1992; Ward & Sloane, 2000). Most of these studies have found that male faculty members have higher levels of overall job satisfaction than female faculty members, particularly in terms of benefits and salary received (Bilimoria et al., 2006; Callister, 2006; Hult et al., 2005; Olsen et al., 1995; Settles et al., 2006; Tack & Patitu, 1992). On the other hand, Ward and Sloane (2000) did not find any significant differences between male and female faculty members in overall levels of job satisfaction. They did observe, however, that male faculty members had almost three times the satisfaction levels of female faculty members when it comes to promotion opportunities. Okpara et al. (2005) and Oshagbemi (1997) found that female faculty members in higher academic ranks expressed more satisfaction with their jobs than their male peers. 1.2. Disciplinary affiliation as an explanatory variable On the other hand, there is relatively little research on the impact of discipline on faculty satisfaction. Hagedorn (2000) used several individual and environmental characteristics to construct a conceptual framework of faculty job satisfaction. She divided the variables that contribute to faculty job satisfaction into two main categories: (1) mediators and (2) triggers. Academic discipline served as a mediator in the model to predict faculty job satisfaction. Yet, Hagedorn did not find academic discipline as a significant predictor of job satisfaction. A similar result was obtained by Olsen et al. (1995) who attempted to explain the job satisfaction of women and minority at a Carnegie Research I university. Disciplinary differences were observed in the amount of time expended by faculty in research and teaching, but discipline did not have an impact on job satisfaction levels. A study by Ward and Sloane (2000), however, concluded that there are significant differences in job satisfaction levels based on the gender and disciplinary affiliation of faculty members. For female faculty members, they found that engineers were the most satisfied and social scientists were the least satisfied. For male faculty members, they concluded that social scientists had the highest levels of satisfaction and natural/physical scientists had the lowest levels. Although their study examined job satisfaction across gender and discipline, it was based on a sample of 900 academics at five Scottish universities more than a decade ago. Disparity in pay across disciplines has also been shown to impact faculty job satisfaction (Morse, 1953; Ward & Sloane, 2000). Morse (1953) found that dissatisfaction can occur when a faculty member experiences inequities with pay based on discipline or the amount of work they accomplish. Ward and Sloane (2000) observed that engineering faculty members express the highest levels of satisfaction with pay when compared with scientists, social scientists, medical and arts faculty members. 1.3. Control variables We include a variety of control variables in our exploration of the relationship between gender, discipline and faculty satisfaction. In this section, we give a brief overview of some literature that has explored the importance of these control variables for studying faculty job satisfaction. We classify these variables into four main categories: (1) demographic, (2) institutional, (3) career, and (4) productivity. 542 M. Sabharwal, E.A. Corley / The Social Science Journal 46 (2009) 539–556 1.3.1. Demographic variables Some scholars have found that faculty of color and female faculty members encounter more barriers while advancing up the academic ladder (Hagedorn, 1996; Laden & Hagedorn, 2000; Menges & Exum, 1983; Perna, 2001; Peterson, Friedman, Ash, Franco, & Carr, 2004; Tack & Patitu, 1992; Toutkoushian, 1999; Turner & Myers, 2000). For example, Peterson et al. (2004) concluded that minority faculty members in medicine experience an ethnic bias, which results in their lower overall job satisfaction rates when compared with other faculty members. In a UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) study of faculty members from twoand four-year institutions, Antonio, Cress, and Astin (1997) found that faculty of color are typically less satisfied with almost every aspect of their job when compared with Caucasian faculty. Marital status and children can also impact faculty satisfaction. The results of studies that explore the relationship between marriage and faculty job satisfaction have yielded mixed results. On the one hand, marriage has been shown to increase satisfaction levels for faculty members (Cetin, 2006; Hagedorn, 2000; Leung, Siu, & Spector, 2000). Yet, some studies have shown that marriage can have a negative impact on faculty job satisfaction (Aisenberg & Harrington, 1988; Bryson, Bryson, & Johnson, 1978). Additionally, the presence of children in the household has been found to impact job satisfaction. Carr and Ash (1998, p. 536) found that “women with children published less, had slower self-perceived career progress, and were less satisfied with their careers than were men with children.” 1.3.2. Institutional variables Another key factor in faculty career satisfaction is the nature of the work itself – i.e., the proportion of time spent conducting research and teaching (Hagedorn, 2000; Olsen et al., 1995; Smart, 1990). Teaching and conducting research are often the supporting pillars in a faculty member’s work life. A study conducted by Olsen et al. (1995) found that faculty members who expressed greater satisfaction with teaching are less likely to receive support and recognition from their peers in their department. Liu (2001) reached a similar conclusion when she found that faculty members who spend a greater percentage of time on teaching (and less time on research) express greater dissatisfaction with their work. She also concluded that faculty members that expressed greater satisfaction with research were more likely to attain tenure and had significantly greater support from their peers. Liu (2001) found that faculty members in the natural/physical sciences and engineering were more likely to spend time conducting research than teaching. 1.3.3. Career variables Rank and tenure are additional control variables for faculty job satisfaction (Adkins, Werbel, & Farh, 2001; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Oshagbemi, 1997; Tack & Patitu, 1992; Ward & Sloane, 2000). According to Herzberg et al. (1959), employees with higher job ranks will have higher levels of job satisfaction. Oshagbemi (1997) concluded that full professors report a higher mean level of satisfaction when compared to junior faculty members. Thus, rank continues to be a highly significant predictor of job satisfaction among academics, with full professors expressing greater job satisfaction than junior faculty members. Adkins et al. (2001) found that tenured faculty members have significantly higher levels of perceived job M. Sabharwal, E.A. Corley / The Social Science Journal 46 (2009) 539–556 543 security. Similarly, Bender and Heywood (2006) concluded that tenured faculty members have higher job satisfaction levels than untenured faculty members. 1.3.4. Productivity variables Additional studies have explored the linkages between work activities and productivity. In particular, several researchers have found that increased time spent on research positively impacts faculty productivity and job satisfaction (Fox, 1992; Marsh & Hattie, 2002). The impact of scholarly productivity on faculty job satisfaction is a topic that is disputable. Often previous studies have used proxies for faculty productivity (e.g., the number of journal/book publications or time spent on research) as predictors of faculty job satisfaction levels (August & Waltman, 2004; Blackburn & Lawrence, 1995; Hagedorn, 2000; Lahey & Vihtelic, 2000; Olsen et al., 1995). Some scholars suggest that satisfaction with work is a predictor of faculty productivity (Pfeffer & Langton, 1993; Spector, 1997; Tack & Patitu, 1992), while others believe that the reverse relationship is more descriptive. August and Waltman (2004) employed Hagedorn’s (2000) conceptual model of measuring job satisfaction to study the overall career satisfaction of female faculty members employed at a Midwestern Carnegie Research I university. They found that the number of publications and presentations by women faculty members did not have a significant impact on the overall job satisfaction. 2. Research question and hypotheses The overarching research question for this study is “How does job satisfaction of faculty members differ by gender and discipline?” Based on previous studies, we have developed some hypotheses that seek to test the details of how satisfaction rates for faculty members vary across gender and discipline. Overall, we anticipate that female faculty members (regardless of discipline) will experience lower satisfaction rates when compared to their male peers. H1: After controlling for demographic, institutional and career-related variables, women faculty members will experience lower levels of job satisfaction than male faculty members across all disciplines. Compared with gender, there is less research on the impact of academic discipline on faculty satisfaction. Most of the studies that have included discipline as an explanatory variable did not find that disciplinary differences significantly impacted faculty members’ job satisfaction levels (Hagedorn, 2000; Olsen et al., 1995). However, a study conducted by Ward and Sloane (2000) did find disciplinary differences among faculty members based on gender. The authors found that women engineers expressed the highest level of job satisfaction when compared with women faculty members in arts, science, medicine, and social science fields. One the other hand, among male faculty members, social scientists expressed the highest satisfaction when compared to their peers in different disciplines. Based on the study by Ward and Sloane’s (2000) we have developed a few hypotheses that are based on disciplinary differences. These hypotheses are outlined below: H2: Among female faculty members, those in engineering fields will experience the highest levels of job satisfaction. 544 M. Sabharwal, E.A. Corley / The Social Science Journal 46 (2009) 539–556 H3:Among male faculty members, those in the social sciences will experience the highest level of job satisfaction. In the next two sections, we outline the details of our dataset and present the findings of our analysis.