Integrated Sensors in Biological Environments*

This paper reviews the application and operation of integrated sensors and actuators in biological and physiological environments. Integrated transducers are widely employed for invasive and non-invasive patient monitoring, for recording and understanding biological events and systems, for delivery of chemicals and electrical stimuli into the body, and as a means for eventual realization of closed-loop visual, auditory and muscular prostheses. The state-of-the-art in the development of precision microstructures, interface electronics and signal processing, and packaging and encapsulation for integrated transducers operating in biological environments are discussed. The technologies derived from research on biomedical integrated sensors that have been applied to sensors used in other application areas are presented.