M2841 - OKAZAKI 9781848448582 PRINT.indd

Research points to gender diff erences in individualism and collectivism (e.g., Gilligan, 1982; Kashima et al. 1995; Maccoby, 1990; Singelis, 1994). At the broadest level, women appear to be less individualistic and more collectivistic than do men (Cross & Madson, 1997; Hofstede, 2001; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1995). For instance, women are more willing and able to care for others (Gilligan, 1982), are more aware of and sensitive to others’ needs (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), are more likely to provide social support to others (Wellman, 1992; Wethington, McLeod & Kessler, 1987), view others as more sociable (Marcus & Lehman, 2002) and describe themselves in terms of relatedness to others (Rosenberg, 1989; also see Cramer, 2000), all of which are hallmarks of collectivism. In contrast, men are more likely to focus on themselves than on others (Clancy & Dollinger, 1993), to endorse competitive goals (Gaeddert & Facteau, 1990), and to describe themselves as separate from others (Lyons, 1983), which are characteristics of individualism. These types of gender diff erence have often been discussed in terms of culturally relevant selfconstruals. The independent self construal is associated with uniqueness, selfreliance, achievement, and separateness, characteristics that parallel an individualistic cultural orientation, whereas the interdependent self is associated with connectedness, and a focus on social context and relationships, characteristics that parallel a collectivistic cultural orientation (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994). Thus, Cross and Madson (1997) noted that gender diff erences in human cognition, motivation, emotion, and social life may be traced to the distinct independent and interdependent selfconstruals constructed and maintained by men and women. However, when it comes to the specifi c nature of gender diff erences in individualism and collectivism (INDCOL), results across studies have varied (see Gabriel & Gardner, 1999; Kashima et al. 1995). Some research has shown no gender diff erences on broad indicators relevant to INDCOL (e.g., Baumeister & Sommer, 1997; Gabriel & Gardner, 1999; Gaines et al.