Understanding China's political will for sustainability and conservation gains

Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on Journal blog. Conservation aims to improve ecological outcomes. The new Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework was adopted in December 2022 at 15th Convention Biological Diversity Conference of Parties (COP15) co-hosted by China and Canada, has potential change trajectory global biodiversity loss (https://www.cbd.int/doc/c/e6d3/cd1d/daf663719a03902a9b116c34/cop-15-l-25-en.pdf). Ensuring that policies actions are effective is critical; understanding considering complex human dimensions which determine effectiveness conservation strategies can reap tangible benefits (Bennett et al., 2017). One such dimension political will, necessary every stage policy cycle a lack often factor when fail (Lassa 2019; Post 2010). It critical success conservation, be it international agreements like Montreal Protocol or natural resource management local scales (Carbonetti 2014; DeSombre, 2000; Sale, 2015). Despite its importance, will been described as ‘slipperiest concept lexicon’ (Hammergren, 1998) tends discussed ambiguously, with scientists only having defined precisely recent years (Pham Treadway, 2011). al. (2010) ‘the extent committed support among key decision makers particular solution problem’. involves four essential components: ‘(1) sufficient set (2) common problem formal agenda (3) supporting (4) commonly perceived, potentially solution’ (Post In paper, we use Treadway's (2011) shorthand definition refer motivation engage strategic, goal-directed behavior advances personal objectives actor inherently risk relational reputational capital’. Garnering sustainable development identified focus action area United Nations Sustainable Development 21st Century (SD21) project (United Nations, 2012). Amassing requires leadership (Sale, 2015) adequate intent individual collective levels those decision-making power (Brinkerhoff, 2010; Thompson & Staddon, 2020). challenging because environmental priorities compete economic, social interests, result ineffective partial adoption scientific advice (Cash, 2016; Cooke 2013; Daw Gray, 2005). Understanding core interests policymakers from outset trade-off assessment conservationists, who must act strategically limited resources, uncertainty feasibility (Bottrill 2008; McDonald-Madden 2008). Political quantified measured using various tools developed (Kapoutsis 2017; Lassa Pham 2019). By policymakers, conservationists more accurately gauge likelihood successful implementation (Gilabert Lawford-Smith, 2012), uncover opportunities leverage existing achieve objectives. examine Chinese government's case study Beijing's sustainability gains. People's Republic decades become increasingly influential affairs, including issues. Grumbine Xu postulated ‘an environmentally healthy secure benefit world, apparent over course century’. China's rapid economic geopolitical ascent led immense scale influence ecosystems both within beyond borders (Grumbine, 2007). world's largest emitter greenhouse gases (Jones, 2007), Belt Road Initiative infrastructure history, proportionately numerous risks (Hughes also contributing emerging associated deep-sea mining arctic shipping (Mariia, Miller Ruiz, Van Dover reach footprint—and influence—is an exploration leadership's valuable timely conservation. seven since Communist Party (CPC) established modern state, experienced revolution, ideological upheaval sweeping reforms facilitated unprecedented growth. Serious challenges have accompanied ascent, surpassing States gas (Lin 2018), demand illegally traded wildlife (Ye 2020), myriad Today's governed centrally CPC, whose leaders delivering party's strategic (Rudd, 2018; Shambaugh, 2018). Guided President Xi Jinping's vision world stage, emerged superpower reshaping geopolitics, security economics (Economy, Rudd, top-down governance model extends governance. government enshrined commitment building civilization (生态文明, shengtàiwénmíng) into constitution 2012, providing direction all (Hansen Wei Authority related matters concentrated few executive agencies, Ministry Natural Resources (manages land, forests, grasslands, wetlands water resources runs National Forestry Grassland Administration) Ecology Environment (oversees protection unifies previously fragmented supervision enforcement responsibilities) (Wang, Public participation generally technocratic experts NGOs; these groups typically expected through state-led (Aikawa, Gilley, Beijing makes respond problems quickly, enact measures invest huge sums money solutions (Gilley, 2012; Miller-Rushing For example, without fear public backlash able rapidly introduce low-carbon initiatives (Lo, ability deliver positive outcomes dependent circumstances, whether complement larger goals. instance, major 1970s development, but caused devastating habitat fragmentation nearly drove giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca extinction (Wei response, central created 67 reserves covering half species' (People's China, introduced national increase forest cover connectivity. These panda's recovery, now down-listed IUCN Red List ‘Endangered’ ‘Vulnerable’. umbrella species, investing benefited hundred other threatened endemic species (Li Pimm, 2016). strong behind efforts least partly attributed status ‘national treasure’ Another high-profile example aligned air quality 2008 Olympic Games. pollution prior hosting event well documented, ensure clean games prompted aggressive before during target regional industry, traffic construction (Wang 2009, Xing Although socioeconomic costs strict controls meant they could not sustained, illustrates leveraging remarkable sought build priorities, continue steer shape decisions today 2019a). observers presented independent interpretations expanded interests. essence, Xi's Dream centers making ‘prosperous strong’ (Simplified Chinese: 富强, pinyin: fùqiáng) again coordinated program rejuvenation ascension (Zhang, Zheng Lye, sections follow, thematically discuss examples align wherein may gains (Table 1). ‘reform opening up’ (改革开放, gǎigékāifàng) growth transformed impoverished country superpower, although steep cost (Fu 2007; He, 2009). CPC recognizes meeting citizenry's expectations quality-of-life improvements, conditions, securing legitimacy credibility Zeng, 2014). Rebuilding regime particularly important Jinping given current issues (Zhao, This expressed 19th Congress 2017, where declared principal ‘contradiction’ (矛盾, máodùn; Marxist referring forces constant opposition, stem conflicting aspirations different classes, lead revolution if left unsolved (Brown, 2012)) facing ‘between unbalanced inadequate people's ever-growing needs better life’ 2017a). I said many times green mountains clear good gold silver. To protect environment productivity, boost productivity. simple fact recognized people. (Xi, 2016) develop being translated fronts. includes reform protected system, no comprehensive classification areas, cohesive legal mechanism interdepartmental agendas (Xu report he pledged ‘establish systems developing protecting territorial space, functional zones, nature system composed mainly parks’ line intent, issued plan guide areas mandate relevant agencies governments 2017b). How narratives mandates seen Yangtze River delta. Introduced 2011, Ecological Line (ECRL) initiative sets out quarter land area, incorporated revised Environmental Protection Law delta, 28,995 km2 already aside (Gao, Furthermore, Yellow Rivers strategy Zhang banned fishing activity basin 10 2019c). measure come too late paddlefish Psephurus gladius, signals genuine conserve 2014) basin's general conditions (Yi 2011; breadth illustrate willingness take actions, integrated agenda. further, logging deforestation contributed large-scale flooding densely populated 2004), ‘threatens claim state protects well-being nation water’ (Lang, 2002). After floods along 1998 killed 3600 people, affected 240 million people USD $30 billion damage, region despite opposition actors industry continued expand protections recover native forests ECRL policy, 2015 ban commercial (Hua further highlights integrate wider policymakers. greatly improved agricultural production last several (Min 2015), largely unsustainable practices intensive fertilizer use. However, per capita availability arable remain below averages, resulting poor food productivity Mukhopadhyay Yu Food (Chen, sprawling urbanization increasing carbon-intensive diets meat (Mukhopadhyay Poore Nemecek, Consequently, high priority issue (Khan 2009), instituted preventative unlikely enough desired 95% self-sufficiency rate grain production, especially soil degradation continues rates Ye Ranst, Unsustainable inputs urgently reduced tackle threatens future would detrimental effect yields (Fan maintain legitimacy, sustained high-level needed farming (e.g. manure treatment, irrigation techniques), strengthened law widespread (Ghose, Qian leading consumer meat, behaviour campaigns encouraging citizens reduce red consumption role play Min currently used cultivate livestock feed help Illegal trade threat (Cardoso 2021; Fukushima 2021), COVID-19 placed health (Plowright 2017) spotlight. investigations (Harrison Sachs, 2022), pandemic's origins linked Wuhan market wild game (野味, yěwèi) sold (Maxmen, 2022). Wildlife crime weak, (including species) delicacies commonplace (Wong, response outbreak COVID-19, terrestrial nationwide urged consumers avoid eating 2020a, 2020b), demonstrating implement will. imposition similar 2003 SARS (also consumption) need (Bell 2004; Liu, 2003). Wild diminished immediately after (Yang 2007); pattern likely pandemic, presenting opportunity foster endogenous, enduring cultural shift (Schumacher, Capitalizing require evidence-based nuanced than blanket bans, difficult enforce sustain, shown eventual resumption short medium terms, there considerable mechanisms threats posed trade, work safety address innovative ways (Biggs Campbell taking assertive governance, (Smith, A foreign stability geographical surrounds enhancing influence, maritime neighbours, heightened tensions (Jain, Regilme, Smith, 2021). peacebuilding challenged conventional wisdom, arguing transboundary cooperation peaceful relations (Dresse significant uncertainties destabilize cooperative exacerbate problems, conflict between nations do necessarily disqualify (Ide, 2018, Some researchers argued states one another feasible ‘low politics’ ‘high (Martin Researchers studied involved instances occurred amidst violent conflict) collaborative Virunga Massif intersection Democratic Congo, Rwanda Uganda 2011), Israeli–Palestinian level (Reynolds, 2017), establishment around (Barquet, 2015; Barquet As West increased year, ‘soft diplomacy’ focused represents politically cooperation. Here, identify three avenues apply context pursuit win-win Transboundary frontiers rich connectivity; instability jeopardize regions (Liu Transnational peacemaking mechanisms, transnational creation, strengthen diplomatic ties. create negotiation channels, defuse break deadlock while improving ecosystem (Mackelworth Roulin concept, hundreds were first conceived means resolving interstate disputes (Barquet They tool ranges seldom coincide (Vitkalova Sino-Russian border (Xinhua, 2019) Amur tiger Panthera tigris altaica leopard pardus orientalis recovery Wang, 2020; Wang 2018) strengthening relations. source products world. Improving tackling illegal (Smiley Evans Inbound trafficking Myanmar, Vietnam, Russia, Laos, Nepal Kazakhstan well-documented, sheer length poses serious Mechanisms coordination facilitate intelligence sharing, joint mutual assistance handling (Nijman Wong, demonstrated collaborate partners highly politicized restrictions lucrative supplies traditional medicine (TCM) trade. 2012 World recommendation end bear Asia, co-developed Species Survival Commission research institutions links (IUCN, Fisheries South Sea, most over-exploited ecosystems, Presently, fisheries leads utilization rights risks. Illegal, unreported unregulated livelihoods communities reliant marine 2016, Competing claims neglect responsibilities (Gregory, Jiang Xue, Teh Cooperation less sensitive oil gas, thus (Nguyen-Dang, Cooperative form structures agreements, aquaculture dialogue (McManus, Zhang, (BRI; 一带一路, yīdàiyīlù) centrepiece (Yu, ambitious deepen ties 125 countries across Europe East Africa (Aoyama, 2019b; Turschwell While acknowledging BRI's benefits, (Ascensão Sutherland Tracy projects BRI. bring substantial economies, pose threats. funding pathways stakeholders Expanding transportation cause extensive wilderness losses consequences (Laurance Watson Large-scale transport increases poachers' access wildlife, spreads invasive harms habitats (Esmail Farhadinia Other impacts BRI include change, damming groundwater pumping, impacts, degradation, (Hinsley Hughes Tian concerns rightly raised, should noted embedded 2019b), consistent domestic progress made transparency (Zhang push private sector reporting With ‘Marshall Plan characteristics’, ambitions developments responsible—preferably net gain outcome Diversity's 2030 Agenda Doing so enable profile leader, CPC's greater soft affairs reshape (Becard Filho, Callaghan Hubbard, assertion ‘green silver’ captured determination emphasize how globally, framing terms ‘green, healthy, intelligent Silk Road’ establish conservation—and even raise standards—should explored (Huang, part diplomacy push, promoting TCM abroad. wildlife-derived medicinal products, products. careful management, unsustainably represent well-governed supply chains (Brinckmann Hinsley sustainably wild-harvest southern Schisandra fruit, ingredient, integration More broadly, provides lessons BRI-related sustainable, advantage frameworks, upon impact assessments planning (Foggin, carbon footprint climate change. emissions reduction commitments far Harris, Nevertheless, vacuum—widened unreliable US involvement withdrawing re-entering Paris Agreement) against backdrop evolving dynamics US–China (De Graaff Apeldoorn, Kristensen Morgan, 2018)—presents CPC. Taking prominent partnerships collaborations EU BRICs Petrone, 2019), standing credible responsible leader time flux (Beeson Watson, He Feng, Xing, Efforts complicated societal considerations policymaking. Conservationists face limitations, availability, feasibility, necessitating optimization decision-making. piggyback traction find success. examined We acknowledge limitations utility outcomes, some universal. alignment important, inclusion engagement parties, sector, NGOs, community stakeholders, agency (Brondizio Le Tourneau, Gunningham, places politicians elected democratically, factors term limits complicate leaders' incentives motivations (DiLorenzo Stone, There situations ecologically optimal simply politicians. Certain considerations, sovereignty security, always trump concerns. initiatives. try fate ‘Grain Green’ initiative, 1999 convert marginal croplands pasture, wetlands, curtailed 2004 blamed production. little evidence claims, wished perceptions 2006; gains, communications recognize achieved alongside ‘more pressing’ actual up universal concern—what does match reality ground. regularly defect pro-environmental campaign promises produce stringent (Ringquist 2013). noted, ‘while divining impossible, indirect influences observable’. Statements indicating presence considered indicators credible, binding commitments; past policies) accountability relationships their constituents; organizations, businesses, military, religious groups; institutional commitments) Familiarity axiomatically necessary. specific China. Its misalignment gaps Lo, Overlapping authority ambiguous persistent exacerbates managing trade-offs Cao, Issues weak rule law, unclear tenure disconnects present (Grumbine Xu, importance 2017b), citizen remains improvements (Teets, (especially outside China), influencing policymaking possible channels Council International (CCICED) Academy Sciences (CAS), accessibility, openness straightforwardness vary challenges. effectively research. conclusion, mere resolve complexities implementing durable levels. prerequisite policies, interventions Identifying exists practitioners devising solutions. goals examining decision-makers local, Where way Hubert Cheung idea manuscript Yutong Phoenix Feng Yifu subsequently writing manuscript. All authors significantly content thank Jianing Fang his contributions conception paper input earlier drafts. journal editors reviewers comments previous versions H.C. supported Japan Society Promotion Science Postdoctoral Fellowship Research Japan, grateful Lee Shau Kee Foundation support. D.B. Australian Discovery Early Career Researcher Grant (DE 160101182). A.H. Kadas Senior Worcester College, Oxford. declare competing did primary data.