Seabed mining and blue growth: exploring the potential of marine mineral deposits as a sustainable source of rare earth elements (MaREEs) (IUPAC Technical Report)

Abstract The expected growth of the global economy and projected rise in world population call for a greatly increased supply materials critical implementing clean technologies, such as rare earth elements (REEs) other metals. Because demand metals is increasing land-based mineral deposits are being depleted, seafloor resources seen next frontier exploration extraction. Marine with great resource potential transition, rare, include mainly deep-sea deposits, polymetallic sulfides, nodules, cobalt-rich crusts, phosphorites, element-rich muds. Major areas economic interest seabed mining following: nodules Penrhyn Basin-Cook Islands Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), Clarion–Clipperton nodule Zone, Peru Basin Central Indian Ocean Basin; massive sulfide exclusive zones Papua New Guinea, Japan, Zealand well Mid-Atlantic Ridge three spreading ridges; crusts Pacific Prime Crust Canary Seamounts Rio Grande Rise Atlantic Ocean; muds around Minamitorishima Island equatorial North Pacific. In addition, marine phosphorites located Chatham Rise, offshore Baja California, on shelf off Namibia. Moreover, shallow-water resources, like placer represent another source many minerals, metals, gems. main concerns related to its environmental impacts. Ecological impacts element ecosystems still poorly evaluated. Furthermore, may cause conflicts various stakeholders fisheries, communications cable owners, wind farms, tourism. ocean an immense food, energy, raw materials, water, ecosystem services suffers seriously by multiple stressors from anthropogenic sources. development blue strategy needs better knowledge By protecting vulnerable areas, applying new technologies mining, spatial planning, regulatory framework minerals extraction, we achieve sustainable management use our oceans.