Reconciling resilience across ecological systems, species and subdisciplines

As the impacts of global change continue to unfold worldwide (Díaz et al., 2019; IPCC, 2021; Maxwell 2016), understanding ability ecological systems respond threats has become a pressing societal need (CBD, 2010; UNISDR, 2015). In recent decades, anthropogenic stressors impacting have escalated at unprecedented rates in both number and severity (Barnosky 2012; Díaz Newbold Despite efforts prevent impacts, species extinctions increased 100- 1,000-fold 2011; Ceballos 2015), with approximately 1 million predicted extinct over coming decades (Scholes 2018). The ongoing loss is altering structure functioning ecosystems (Pecl 2017). consequence, preserving resilience, defined as resist recovery from disturbances (Hodgson key conservation priority. For instance, several international environmental policies, such Aichi Biodiversity Targets 2010), Sustainable Development Goals (United Nations General Assembly, 2015) or Sendai Framework (UNISDR, explicitly include resilience target. its importance ecology conservation, popularity rivalled only by disparity interpretations, definitions applications across different subdisciplines 2015; Ingrisch & Bahn, These discrepancies between approaches mean that ecologists used variety ‘indicators’ ‘metrics’ (Angeler Allen, 2016). such, Journal Animal Ecology, Ecology Functional present this joint Special Feature provide an updated overview ways define, quantify, compare predict systems, subdisciplines. Editorial, we discuss current perspectives on theoretical empirical studying it, 29 manuscripts published Feature. We first brief conceptualisation quantifying linking Second, identify opportunities challenges advance our describe how papers contribute these new directions. Finally, propose steps move field further towards integrated scales. Resilience (Lt. ‘resilire’, leap spring back, OED, 1989) widely concept ecology. Over course history, scientific disciplines adopted term processes. example, physician James Carson (1820) lungs expand contract. psychology, was coined capacity children endure difficult emotional experiences (Rutter, 1979). engineering, stress (in terms load-bearing weight) timber could sustain before breaking (Tredgold, 1818). use fields, commonality among them describes system deal change. Given tight link change, it not surprising fundamental research. Early predicated ecosystem stability persistence despite (e.g. MacArthur, 1955), where represent a/biotic factors displacing away stationary equilibrium (Holling, 1973). Ecological were understood persist determined states, representing stable conditions which assumed return back following any disturbance (Lewontin, 1969; May, 1977). Though linked per se, early works introduced crucial concepts, alternative states basins attraction, set foundations theory. formalisation ecology—that are aware of—was made Holling (1973), although he already some his earlier studies Goldberg, 1971; Orians, 1971). suggested property than argued can exist multiple, 1996; Figure 1). Each state structures, compositions processes, maintained forces feedbacks their basin attraction (Figure 1; Folke 2004; Holling, 1973, 1996). When displaces state, feedback processes draw initial If disturbed beyond past tipping point, however, may undergo regime shift transition (Dakos 2014; Scheffer 2009). ‘the size domain amount take shifted into configuration’ (sensu Due rise around Pimm, 1984), distinguished two main quantify resilience: engineering Engineering defines process (Pimm, 1984). This view considers be component (Donohue 2013; often assumes single On other hand, multiple resistance is, magnitude absorb shifting one another versus diverged substantially literature (Brand Jax, 2007). More views consider encompasses components describing described above Although theory helps conceptualise phenomena empiricism requires specifics. precisely what title alludes ‘Reconciling subdisciplines’. operate levels biological organisation (individuals, populations communities), correspond various All formed interacting age population, Caswell, 2001; functional composition food web, Ings function interact, interaction predation pressure; Donohue 2017), progression through life-history stages maturation rate; Stearns, 1992) individuals breeding effort, Ricklefs, measurable outputs, commonly including population size), growth rate community biomass change), diversity richness) sex ratio population). System outputs also measured using traits (Carmona 2016; Violle 2007), output (individual, community). To (i.e. needs (a) defined, well affected ‘change’ imposed system); (b) relevant measures best ‘capacity’) (c) develop metrics those appropriate level organisation, vary within study measure change). ecology, been studied for (Harrison, 1979; Neubert 1997), though necessarily explicit recourse Stott 2011). Population models typically formulated (st)age life cycle average vital survival, development, reproduction) clustered (st)ages. Here, assume display structure—that relative each (st)age, commensurate numerical (Caswell, 2001). Simple (density-independent non-stochastic) conceptualisations converge proportions (st)ages However, frequently subject displace structure, thus changing high low survival and/or fecundity Resistance structured pre-disturbance size, clear links concepts theory, connections formalised until recently (Capdevila 2020). Similar reasonably applied density-dependent dynamics, expected stochastic dynamics. communities received considerable attention Community ‘structure’ network interactions 1976), but ‘composition’ taxonomic, phylogenetic groupings Pérez-Valera multitude ways, richness, abundance, (Ings 2009; Tylianakis 2008). absolute being ‘processes’ underlying (May, ‘state’ departs mentioned paragraph others Cole Yang 2019). considered limited types (the trophic webs probably most studied), contemporary research increasingly concerned strengths (Li 2021). A great debate still abounds about effects complexity while showed destabilising (Magurran, 2013), more shown stabilising (Mougi Kondoh, Qian Akçay, While focused changes (Hughes 2003; Lloret 2011), emerging area functions (Oliver Focusing examine risks rendering incomplete picture extent might functionality (Gladstone-Gallagher Matos 2020; Oliver Species contributions tightly traits—morphological, physiological, phenological behavioural features, individual level, impact fitness Different share similar combinations so equivalent functionality, functionally redundant (de Bello Carmona Consequently, achieved (Gallagher illustrating possible independence ecosystems, functionality. distinguish gave degree recover rapidly perturbations’ incorporates resilience. comprises pieces covering broad range topics related systems. better contextualise them, classified according subdiscipline, approach authors 2). Perhaps legacy 1973; almost half 2a). Yet, cut large proportion interfaces community, patterns emerge publications suggest making progress previous legacies focusing interdisciplinary lie ahead, final section editorial. developments mostly based Harrison, sometimes challenging apply ‘real-world’ hampering Feature, observational studies, combining experimental 2b). Such combination important experiments help unravel promoting observe (Hoover Jones Lipoma Combining test validity Medeiros Because natural complex, all components. focus plants algae, relatively taxonomic groups, 2c). simplify primary producers community), feasible, incorporating levels) will render whole. unified trans-disciplinary consensus actually it. ahead bring traditionally disparate fields. contributions, Delettre (2021) Van Meerbeek al. (2021), complementary quantifications given historical divergences study. Both recognise semantics furthering make suggestions regarding overcome conflicting definitions. stresses do degrees rather behaviour system. Hence, choose definition depending questions management goals, achieved, spatiotemporal scales considered. Semantics aside, commonalities they structured, measured, good start reconciling One casualty diverse divergent parlances inability results asking questions. Synthesis meta-analysis proven extremely powerful tools (Koricheva Gurevitch, 2014), art makes finding generality challenging. pointed out would advantageous standardise depicting resilience/stability facilitate comparisons studies. last significant methodological advances, increasing statistical techniques time-series analyses, Dennis 2006; Blüthgen, spatial Dale Fortin, sharing methods everyone. Using common ‘currencies’ Capdevila Clark 2018)—or least determining ‘conversion factors’ metrics—will possible, opening up possibility much-needed assessments inherently properties (Bender Historically, predominantly sudden events pulse occur intensities (low high) frequencies (pulse press) (Jentsch White, accounting regimes understand particularly because profound systems' end, demonstrate sea temperature, acting press disturbance, major (Tsimara 2021) (Miner marine communities. Tsimara combine data Mediterranean fisheries landings 31 years (1985–2015) infer dynamics build landscapes. Miner utilise decade-long dataset rocky intertidal whole U.S. West coast, temporal stability. Likewise, Serra explore influence vegetation clearing frequency forest soil macrofauna Brazilian Amazon. compound (Côté Orr interactive land-use weather variability forest, reference Their findings long-term induce short period time (5 after cessation). Nowicki highlight cascades, predators, exacerbate extreme climatic seagrasses macroalgae cover Western Australia. Similarly, Nelson report warming drought invertebrate abundance energy channel configurations. inhabiting streams amounts organic matter complex substrates resilient surface water simpler, homogeneous substrates. Accounting scale crucial. immediate response de Vries DeSoto even manifest Johnstone show ‘legacy effects’ (Johnstone sense, Leizeaga (2020) sensitivity droughts bacterial growth, fungal respiration historically gradient precipitation Texas, USA. Hoover seasonal moisture plant phenology Colorado, Webster rainfall leaf density seagrass populations, values, depends salinity exposed previously. Leverkus local play role trees logging. Also, Ovenden baseline, calls caution under examination. Steel topography vegetative heterogeneity California's Sierra Nevada mountain. communities). examining context happening specific miss drivers system's bottom-up top-down constituent subsystems overarching super-systems. examples integrate data, framework holistic manner. Lisovski level: migration behaviours shorebird differentially affect survivorship, implications Populations intersection directly shape performance (Griffith context, Paniw complementarity demographic facilitating droughts. explaining total explain compositional Carnicer ecophysiological determine sessile oaks Quercus petraea heatwaves. They find variation secondary recruitment thermal exposure saplings heatwaves, driven microhabitat conditions. 20 indices comparing disturbance. Muñoz tropical forests autogenic regulation. old-growth southern Mexico analyse three variables (basal area, tree richness), annual (recruitment, mortality). negative relationship variables, supporting factors. multifaceted nature question whether other. reveal negatively correlated microbial models, suggesting inferred vice versa. events) similarly flooding gradients salt marshes Louisiana, Moreover, linkages hold when 2013). Eagle flood alter correlations five freshwater macroinvertebrate 18-year series (2000–2017) southeast Alaskan river, examined data. challenge future, potentially novel, (Sutherland Global threats, (IPCC, habitat (Newbold likely optimistic policy scenarios (Leclère predicting easy task, abovementioned emergent (Scheffer frameworks us anticipate potential consequences future Trait-based solution challenge. Indeed, becoming accessible ecologists, standardised protocols collection (Moretti 2017) databases hand TRY, Kattge Amniote, Myhrvold Bonhomme applies selection pressures living pools bromeliad plants, feeding tolerate stress. diversity, dependent aforementioned traits, tolerance resting eggs cysts, post-disturbance immigration. Su trait-based warning signals collapse lake Yangtze floodplain (warming, eutrophication biotic interactions). Studies pivotal informing management, De Battisti proposes conceptual author illustrates suites sand dunes pulse, chronic rapid onset disturbances. argues that, coastal properties, actionable plans resource managers. Some structures disposed others, ‘keystone’ species, interactions, cascades loops indicate greater withstand Maia adaptive population-dynamics herbivory networks specialisation robustness against extinction cascades. Pollination networks, generalisation appears vulnerable term. confers leveraged designed restore maintain like pollination. Thakur heat shocks rhizosphere microcosms decrease prey far predator biomass, period. same promote imbalance due differences Li energetic constraints group web enhance dampening strength positive loops. Jia presence arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) grassland promotes improves drought. AMF aid drought, productivity nitrogen cycling, ameliorating compounding adverse N deposition. Mungi protected areas providing invasions, indirectly lack invasive context-dependent. (species richness abundance) inside outside areas, covariates climate, type, native richness. world conserving goal United Bringing conceptualised framing consistent clarity measured. doing so, barriers—which artificial—between subdisciplines, indeed schools thought research, begin dissolve. benefits ripple down organisation. knowledge ultimately guidance effective actions, allocate resources conservation. thank editorial team support during preparation especially S. Hoggart, R. Robins, E. Aimé Ponton. want D. Gibson anonymous reviewers who helped improve wanted submitted work P.C. supported Ramón Areces Foundation Postdoctoral Scholarship (BEVP30P01A5816). M.B. University Research Priority Program Change Zurich Swiss National Science (310030_197201) Jordi Bascompte. H.W. Irish Council postdoctoral fellowship (GOIPD/2020/483). R.S.-G. NERC IRF (NE/M018458/1). I.O.M. I.S. Associate Editors took no part peer review decision-making paper. M.B., R.L.G.R., D.B.S. Commissioning Editor P.C., special feature; coordinated development integration; I.O.M., D.B.S., summarised Features provided versions manuscript; wrote version co-authors reviewers. contributed article approval publication. history available https://publons.com/publon/10.1111/1365-2745.13775. No manuscript.