Public sector creativity as the origin of public sector innovation: A taxonomy and future research agenda

This systematic literature review analyses how public servants apply workplace creativity to come up with ideas for sector innovations, defining and analyzing its practices, features, trends, hiatuses in knowledge which we provide a future research agenda. Creativity is the origin of innovation. Public creativity, however, theoretically undefined underexamined, resulting unclarity on what constitutes creativity. We define as “public coming novel useful through various practices.” Our findings indicate that at least six taxonomically distinctive creative although they are involved different extent generating initial idea thus do not always generate autonomously, finding alternative ways ideas. However, our indicates Dit systematisch literatuuronderzoek analyseert hoe ambtenaren creativiteit toepassen om op ideeën voor innovaties de publieke te komen, definieert en werkwijzen, eigenschappen, trends kennishiaten waarvoor een onderzoeksagenda opstellen. Creativiteit oorsprong van innovatie. sector, echter, theoretisch gezien ongedefinieerd onderbelicht, resulterende onduidelijkheid wat inhoudt. Wij definiëren als “ambtenaren die nieuwe bruikbare komen door middel verscheidene werkwijzen.” Onze bevindingen tonen dat minimaal zes taxonomisch verschillende creatieve werkwijzen toepassen, ondanks zij mate betrokken zijn bij het genereren daarmee deze niet altijd autonoom genereren, creatief vinden alternatieve manieren komen. Echter, ons onderzoek toont betreffende wij Workplace organizational innovation (Amabile, 1996) therefore perceived critically important organizations' performance (Mumford et al., 2012; Puccio & Cabra, 2010). As innovativeness organizations regarded essential providing optimal services (De Vries 2016; Wynen 2014), focus growing illustrated by increasingly being granted managerial freedom be more (Overman Van Thiel, 2001; 2014) expressing their wish recruit (Kruyen 2019; Kruyen Genugten, 2020). Despite this acknowledgement, it remains unclear encompasses innovations. Available literature—including previous reviews (Anderson 2014; Woodman 1993)—focus either 2016) or within private (e.g., Amabile Kramer, 2011; Andriopoulos, Mumford, 2010; Zhou Hoever, 2014). Only handful studies Denhardt 2013; Feeney DeHart-Davis, 2009; Heinzen, 1994; 2017; Rangarajan, 2008; Visser Kruyen, 2021) no analysis problematic two reasons. First, analytically distinct concepts means identical specifically regards crucial front-end process has received little academic scrutinization compared other stages 2017). Indeed, stage innovations largely unexplored leading hiatus Secondly, one cannot simply generalize definitions into assume sector. The small body (Denhardt 2008) (Pots Kastelle, Nählinder, Bysted Jespersen, 2013) likely differs from counterparts. Most notably, relevant differences encompass reduced asymmetric incentives due market competition (Borins, 2000; Chen Bozeman, an absence venture capital seed red-tape limiting endeavors (Bozeman Feeney, 2011), strong political interference ability long-term planning (Chen adverse selection individuals against careers 2000). short, appears typical terms Research necessary clarify remain. aims analyze By doing so, study will (1) (2) taxonomy practices apply, (3) idiosyncratic features covered literature, (4) offer agenda based identified hiatuses. “How remain subject, published international refereed journal articles book chapters regarding period between January 2000 March 2020?” Based findings, substantive methodological article organized follows. start theoretical discussion delineate basis. then turn procedure. Next, present followed trends. Finally, knowledge, ending summary key findings. pluralist topic gaining attention multiple disciplines offering varying such “Any act, idea, product changes existing domain, transforms domain new one” “The production high quality, original, elegant solutions problems,” among others (Csikszentmihalyi, 2013, p. 28; Mumford 2012, 4; Kozebelt Niu Sternberg, 2001). While Administration organizations, Organizational Sciences Business Administration/Management have extensively focused types organizations. “workplace creativity” defined “employees work-related ideas” (Amabile 1996, 1155). Henceforth, refer when mentioning To delineate: synonymous first process. Accordingly, described “crucial frond-end process” 1996). What sets apart former typically generation while latter also subsequent processes social evaluation practical implementation 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 2013). aim research, dissect definition elaborate elements. element “coming with” refers passive appearances active result employees introducing ideas, interaction personal, process, environmental, leadership factors (Puccio Wallas, These can desirable well undesirable, example unethical behavior rule-breaking (Gino Ariely, Khessina 2018). Building classification used Unsworth (2001) Rangarajan (2008), classified proactive reactive. Reactive concerns responsively occurring situations, whereas prospectively open undiscovered situations. “work-related range possible outcomes these interactions, commonly named products Thirdly, “employees” actors initiating case working semi-public “novelty” degree newness, diverse magnitudes; incremental additions changes, little-c radical Big-C (Kozebelt 2012). Literature illustrates wide products. Examples improved operation management service delivery (Joha Janssen, 2010), adjusted administrative systems (Damanpour 2018), open-innovation platforms procedures (Heimstädt Reischauer, 2018; Loukis Mergel Desouza, 2013), context-specific tailor-made (Jessen Tufte, Laitinen, 2015; Surva 2016), revolutionary mobile notary service, IoT, blockchain applications door-to-door (Lewis 2020; Luu Osorio 2020) Thereby, both procedures, work methods, systems) services, products). base search string diversity In order safeguard validity transparency, procedure PRISMA-P checklist Flow Diagram (Moher 2015) identification, screening, assessment, inclusion sample. ensures unbiased discuss Applying consisting synonyms would assumptions, making prone biases. Therefore, develop searches products, discusses, mentions, applied underlying extensive number combinations adjectives (O'Quin Besemer, 1999) “product” objects resemble “original solutions,” “new practices,” “unorthodox methods,” “unique ideas”). brainstorm, compile list, use dictionaries online synonym generators add synonyms. A fellow researcher reviewed list made finally reiterated adding 37 26 compiled, containing 962 represent (see Appendix A). exerted endeavor exclude policy cycle, predominantly decision-making early (political) formulation. precondition discusses concerned example, servants, municipalities, executive agencies. results following abstract level: TopicSubject = (“Public actors”) AND (“Adjectives” + “Objects”), full string, see A. Using Web Science database 2020. analyzed sample using Atlas.ti, coding “emergent themes” method. Emergent themes inductive iterative distillation voluminous amounts qualitative data, make sense data reduce text fragments encapsulate specific phenomena, categorized themes, information question Thomas Allen, 2006). case, interpreted clusters codes practice. bulk was done author, second third author validating independent five randomly selected each. reliability report shows 70% overlap, consistent explainable justifiable differences. With all differences, coded strictly demarcated conformity method criteria section. emergent interpreted, clustering hierarchy templates, discussed contains 187 articles, originating 40 countries across continents, predominance North-Western Europe (38%), Northern America (17%), Southern (12%), Asia (11%). stems 126 sources, journals administration (27%) (10%) (5%). empirical (76%) opposed (24%). Within studies, there designs (42%), quantitative survey under mixed methods (12%). majority general (52%), municipal (14%) health care workers (9%) street-level bureaucrats (4%) policing (3%). mentioned identify shown below Figure 2. mutually exclusive sometimes combine integral strategy. differ fundamental mechanisms input idea. difference ordered higher-input internalized lower-input externalized practices. “creative thinking”; “discretion”; “experimenting”; “networking”; (5) “transferring”; (6) “outsourcing sector.” practice 118 remaining 69 discussing theory indirectly related conforming top-down disseminated ideas). Some 3 many For lists subdividing per B. “networking” notably frequently, thinking” less frequently. 4 spread time period. boxplot sector” gained momentum 2007 years 2013 2018, 2012 later 2015 2018. “Creative 2016 most recently, 2019. Mentioned 11 sample, autonomous thinking thinking, exploratory learning (Escribá-Carda On level, “thinking outside box” (Deschamps Mattijs, 4910; 2017, 832), “deliberatively searching opportunities innovate” (Carnes 2019, 439) “how things could needed get [the sector] there” (Zampetakis Moustakis, 2007, 23). Quintessential brainstorming (Berman Kim, Lockert 2020), blue-sky (Wagner Fain, 2017), scenarios, roleplaying 2010) share common autonomously proactively seek Although scarcely (Awang Yasir Majid, 2019). At level servant, archetypically creative, represents 21 room discretion fit unique situations encounter. encountering require “situational adjustment” (Jensen, 2015, 1128) “pragmatic improvisation” (Buvik, 2016, 783), deviate rules, routines address clients' needs restrict choices, need deal encountered uncertainties, shortcomings complexities (see, e.g., Lu Perna, De Corte 2018;; Nugus Franklin Buvik, Tummers Bekkers, Wihlman Jessen Eilers, 2002). decisions servants' field-level expertise, day-to-day experiences experiential Fernandez Moldogaziev, 2012), often combined ethical judgment moral assessment situation Chew Vinestock, Jensen, may even challenge break rules innovate Ferguson Blackman, lead variations unorthodox (Surva fixes unanticipated events (Nugus (Stenvall Discretion improvisation reactive instead thinking. highly improvise part approaches. Moreover, widely exercised daily activities 2019) amount substantial (Busch Henriksen, 29 experimenting, trial, error, adjustment. Experimenting continually applying acquired during (Choi Chandler, Damanpour Pitts, 2011). Thus, experimenting ongoing development testing, feedback, adjustment original concept. “build minimum viable quickly, iterate wildly –always asking [they] better” (Clarke Craft, 11). test options, trial implementation, pilot interventions, prototype tools Clarke Hyvärinen Landry because trial-and-error nature. namely smaller-c adjustments improvements, subsequently experimental developing and/or implementing Capital-C 68 fourth networking stakeholders collaboratively Networking arrangements baseline generated collaborative spur (mutual) shared stakeholders, some Sørensen Torfing, 2016). shape interactive governance spaces (Storbjörk autonomy collaborate compete (Österberg Qvist, identified, co-production including co-initiation, co-planning, co-creation co-design, co-delivery planning, open-innovation, design Lewis Österberg Storbjörk Zurbriggen Lago, Various forms give arrangements, collective workshops knowledge-transfer, trainings, study-visits, focus-groups, hackathons Innovation Labs/Hubs prime facilities housing encompassing physical digital facilitative environments bring together goal considered if actively participate only act orchestrators (Janssen Estevez, mediators 2019), promotors 2018) agenda-setters, facilitators Denhardt, 35 fifth transferring elsewhere adopting them transferring, learn periods, countries, (similar) large Zhang Yu, Aalto Kallio, Heimstädt Ideas transferred own 2017) mimicking, adapting, combining—or inspired by—one elements designs, instruments, tools, goals, values, strategies tactics policies, institutions Askim inspires variation rather uncreative copy-pasted. 31 final outsourcing toward let produce innovative way (Michelucci Marco, Ohemeng Grant, Sharma engagement ranges leveraging resources completely reconfiguring (Hora Schreiber, Liddle McElwee, Outsourcing take place three distinguishable forms: cooperative public–private partnerships, controlled predeveloped request via procurement, complete privatization Furlong Bakker, moderately uncreative, depending identification feature vary “networking,” “transferring,” thinking”). but iteratively refined feedback Munthe-Kaas, Wagner takes (Fernandez stands out covers unit individual underrepresentation—or perhaps nonrepresentation—of micro-level current literature. feature, additionally certain frequently “discretion” “experimenting,” thinking.” frequently—at part—externalized, “tran