Is There a (Dis-)Fluency Effect in Learning With Handwritten Instructional Texts? Evidence From Three Studies

The disfluency effect postulates that intentionally inserted desirable difficulties can have a beneficial on learning. Nevertheless, there is an ongoing discussion about the emergence of this since studies could not replicate or even found opposite effects. To clarify boundary effects and to investigate potential social operationalized through handwritten material, three ( N 1 = 97; 2 102; 3 103) were carried out. In all experiments, instructional texts manipulated in terms (computerized font vs. font). Learning outcomes cognitive load measured experiments. Furthermore, metacognitive variables (Experiment 3) presence measured. Results ambiguous, indicating element interactivity (complexity connectedness information within learning material) material condition determines disfluency. When low, had positive germane processes. increases, negative impacts efficiency extraneous 3). contrast common explanations effect, disfluent no benefits. Social processes did influence with as well.