Fanon, the recovery of African history, and the <scp> <i>Nekyia</i> </scp>

Black history is the study of human past that focuses on people with black skin: things those have done, societies Africa, world events from perspective people, and so on. Nowadays, recovery increasingly seen as important in United Kingdom elsewhere.1 People campaign for its inclusion school curricula; there are documentaries exploring African civilisations, university research programmes devoted to it. The was also deemed by Négritude Movement (a consciousness movement developed Paris), which a central part intellectual context Fanon's work. It perhaps, therefore, surprising find Fanon highly critical Skin, White Masks (Fanon, 2008), négritude writers' attempts recover history. In this paper, I will argue his critique can only be fully understood if we read text adopting an idea Césaire (1995) that, following Jung (2009), called nekyia. As such, form therapy. begin briefly explaining what is, why writers associated it were concerned history, before presenting explicit objections their arguments. After this, offer further reason recovering not defeated objections. final paper present nekyia show how reading therapy helps explain dismisses text. anticolonial emerged Paris during 1930s. One themes identity. term ‘négritude’—coined Aimé Césaire, one movement's founders—means ‘blackness’ or perhaps ‘black personhood’. other two thinkers usually recognised founding Léon Gontran Damas, Léopold Sédar Senghor. All three countries under French colonial rule. No created out nothing. Senghor influenced Harlem Haitian Renaissances, through Rabaka (2015) traces roots thought W. E. B. Dubois. men encountered these ideas at ‘salon’ hosted sisters Martinique: Jane, Paulette, Andrée Nardal. Sharpley-Whiting (2000) observes women's contributions overlooked, Jane Nardal had already published article 1928 set many later came characterise (Nardal, 2002). Different put forward different banner Movement, but aim all share develop new identity alternative conceptions blackness. Colonial takes superior, civilised, rational, intelligent, human. claimed inferior, primitive, uncivilised, less (the latter sometimes couched evolved). Whiteness has special normative status—it conceived standard state humans. thus, according thought, just defective. At time, Caribbean commonly themselves rather than Black, taking apply Africa. This self-conception crumbled when they travelled France discovered them 2008). Against posited common Africanized turning the—at time—largely unknown Africa inspiration.2 ‘Africa […] no historical World; development exhibit What properly understand Unhistorical, Underdeveloped spirit, still involved conditions mere nature’ Hegel far unique holding such view, similar persisted, least certain quarters, into 20th century.5 1960s, BBC broadcast lecture series Professor Hugh Trevor-Roper University Oxford notoriously stated precolonial history.6 Like Hegel, Trevor-Roper's claim based ‘is essentially purposive too […]’ static society—like supposedly existing continent—that does change historical. Moreover, contends ‘we [history] order discover where are’ (Trevor-Roper, 1965, p. 9). So concerns contributed progress more broadly. Since assumes Africans contributed, follows studying Africa's would merely ‘to amuse ourselves unrewarding gyrations barbarous tribes picturesque irrelevant corners globe’ 9).7 Chapter 8 largely question makes chapter. First, broad lines response available view contest static, influence world's development. Or, may dispute conception rational towards some end point, having mark being (These responses mutually exclusive.) Movement's instance first response. countered primitive unchanging showing been civilizations, played role events. argues should prefer second line debates colonialism own terms; accepts ideas—that civilisation human; belong fundamentally races. But rejected. compares situation invited respond student Lyon ‘made jazz music literally irruption cannibalism modern world’ 2008, 176).8 Rather try cannibalism, tells us ‘he rejected premises request based’ do same here 176). There good think who live civilizations ‘The discovery existence Negro civilization fifteenth century confers patent humanity me’ 175). racial binary fact nature. Black-skinned White-skinned each other; instead, race exists extent socially constructed. not. Any white man’ 180). ‘My skin wrapping specific values’ 177). real difference between skin, outside differences cultural social institutions, sort is. true someone whose ancestors few hundred years, sense belongs Fanon. being, whole too. ‘I am man, Peloponnesian War much mine invention compass’ objection ultimate goal liberation colonialism, includes ending exploitation most downtrodden. help bring about. remarks whilst civilisations ‘the greatest interest absolutely see anything lives eight-year-old children labor cane fields Martinique Guadeloupe’ ways mistreatment colonised workers could end: colonisers might heart stop exploiting them, fight (both happen). play either route liberation. suppose make colonisers' treatment colonised. A theme thinking way human, (partly) justifies poor them. Thus, example, Aboriginal Australians denied right land grounds lead animal property rights (Banner, 2005). To continent establish fulfil colonialism's criteria By logic, (partially) removes supposed justification mistreatment. remarks, carry innocence point believing appeals respect dignity alter reality’ 174). about grasped level. They affect both perceive feel others. These perceptual affective phenomena easily dislodged simply reasoning. Perhaps importantly, inferior grease wheels keep turning. Colonialism ultimately motivated accrual wealth, power (usually service acquisition wealth), pursuit stemmed Indeed, various apparently justify often look like rationalisations. empirical claim, examples throughout bear out—for U.S. invasion Afghanistan 2001 presented public aiming liberate Afghan women Taliban. widely acknowledged motivation (Berry, 2003). then motivate either. He offers illustrate claim. he states working-class knew ‘never took pose problem past’ Second, points First Indochina War/Anti-French Resistance War, fought mostly Vietnam along parts surrounding region, including protectorates Laos Cambodia, ongoing wrote Masks. notes reported stories ferocity Viet-Minh battle, ‘serenity young Vietnamese sixteen seventeen faced firing squads’ fighting dream glory, violence brutality experience hands colonisers. prisoner seek meaning my destiny endlessly creating myself’ body determine single actions’ Let accept sake argument here. Still, sufficient rejection appeal Sartrean notion freedom indicates interprets strand philosophy because happened determines person present. suggest connection identity, vulnerable system exploitation, premised race. We saw earlier on, etc. categories reinforce structuring society group exploit, exploited. words, partly defined ideology, represent people's places world. tasks identify analyse spread. For talks impact children's magazines, pointing ‘[t]he Tarzan stories, sagas twelve-year-old explorers, adventures Mickey Mouse Wolf, Devil, Evil Spirit, Bad Man, Savage always symbolized Negroes Indians’ pp. 112–113). welfare queen constitutes materialistic, domineering, manless woman. Relying dole, queens content take hard-earned money tax-paying Americans remain married state[…] [This image used help] mask effects cuts government spending programs fed children, housed working families, assisted cities maintaining roads, bridges, basic infrastructure, supported services. Media images identified blamed deterioration US interests. simultaneously became symbols wrong America targets policies designed shrink sector’ source culture's shared meanings Our grasp ever partial. know—either individually collectively—everything happened. know known and/or interpreted particular perspective. books written powerful, our embodies Unsurprisingly, controlling images. example recent Windrush scandal. ‘Windrush generation’ emigrated Britain colonies, encouraged come British sorely needed labour after World II. However, former subjects, status citizens was, continues be, ambiguous. Despite ruled Britain, living colonies did enjoy Kingdom, subject complex forms citizenship, complicated achieved independence.9 Legislation passed 1971 meant migrants arrived prior 1973 automatically given indefinite leave Kingdom. 2010, destroyed large archive landing cards, recorded date arrivals reportedly warned immigration caseworkers information stored anywhere else, regardless (Gentleman, 2018). Many lived worked decades suddenly unable prove there. lost jobs, homes, access healthcare. Some deported left little children. Others stranded years going holiday refused re-entry 2020).10 Campaign groups11 scandal facilitated lack knowledge Britain's migration amongst general population. Widespread ignorance made easier mess members unfortunate bureaucratic errors coupled failure individual victims paperwork order, latest move long actions gradually curtailing citizenship colonies. amorphous ‘red tape’ acted smokescreen obscuring responsibility individuals actively elderly British-Caribbean families.12 skewed give rise images, powerful serve combat providing hermeneutical resources positive effects. leaves puzzle: concern generated seemingly recognise counteract them? answer, think, lies capture reasons dismissing missing account far: adoption Césaire's philosophy, which—for shortly—I call Césairean holds produces unhealthy psychic minds Liberation partially involves restoration mental health. goals believe juxtaposition races massive psychoexistential complex. hope analyzing destroy it’ 5). reads epic poem, Cahier d'un retour au pays natal/Notebook Return My Native Land (1995), quotes extensively Masks, offering method doing this. poem describe method; carries out. waking dream13—a psychotherapeutic technique accessing unconscious. patient allows arise, taken guide unconscious phenomena. versions therapists.14 uses metaphor inner journey face aspects oneself, painful uncomfortable, must develop. Nekyia classical Greek referring communication dead, obtain term—katabasis—refers Underworld Hades. encompass both. His reference myths journeying hidden nature unconscious, voyage difficult dangerous. risk madness since finds overcome conscious mind. considered therapeutic exercise clearly fits Jungian nekyia.15 inwards search means intended effect, confront means—all residue blackness contained recesses mind, particularly awful—in (his identity). fixed essence, continually rewritten inseparable ‘So blood memory! memory lagoons. covered death's heads’ circled blood. belt corpses’ ‘From hold hear shackled curses rising, gasps dying, sound thrown overboard, baying woman giving birth… scraping fingernails groping throats… sneer whip… crawling vermin among tired bodies…’ ‘Because hate you, you your reason, invoke dementia. praecox flamboyant tenacious cannibalism. Treasure, let count: remembers. screams. sees. unleashed’ looked trees become tree tree's feet dug great venom sacs tall bone ground. Congo so, rustling forests rivers’ worn parrot feather musk-cat skins. tried patience missionaries’ ‘(niggers-they are-all-alike, tell every-vice-every-conceivable-vice, I'm telling-you-the-smell-of-niggers, it-helps-the-cane-grow. remember-the-old-saying: beat-a-nigger, feed-a-nigger)’ ‘Overall picture hideous nigger, grumpy gloomy slumped together prayer-like upon knotty stick. nigger shrouded old threadbare jacket. comical ugly, behind me looking him giggling. COMICAL AND UGLY. UGLY, sure. exhibited wide smile connivance…’ accept, […]. And suddenly, strength life charge bull’ ‘Negridom smell fried onions rediscovers sour taste spilt Negridom standing’ ‘Do understand? down. ready happening depths, now go up man down lifts shoulders raises clouds chosen use expression Gaston Bachelard, psyche ascent’ ‘rise, Dove. rise. rise’ summary, understands healing person's stunted self. propose kind therapy: ascensional descend depths worst residues race, peace Through acceptance, self-identity transformed. She imagined ascent brings feelings it, provides her appreciation freedom. From she work colonialism. rummaged frenetically antiquity man. found breath away Ségou, Djenné, thousand people; accounts learned blacks (doctors theology went Mecca interpret Koran) wrong, even half-man, belonged gold silver ago’ ‘Every hand losing (p. 101). negritude, tears eyes machinery again’ 106). crippled veteran Pacific war says brother ‘Resign yourself colour got stump; we're victims’. ‘Nevertheless, refuse amputation ‘Blackness, darkness, shadow, shades, night, labyrinths earth, abysmal blacken someone's reputation; and, side, bright innocence, dove peace, magical, heavenly light’ laying bare uncomfortable truths, accomplishes thing Césaire: journeys unearths face. making explicit, acknowledged. lose power. hitting rock bottom, transformation self begin. attempt argued chapter Instead, suggestion wounds inflicted healed undertake lodged write employs Clinging noble glory hinders completion Thus sets aside Only facing painful, able transform rise, liberation.19