Deportability and spirituality in a hostile environment: an intersubjective perspective

The United Kingdom’s ‘hostile environment for immigrants’ is having distressing effects on people of African Caribbean heritage, especially those who have been threatened with deportation. While some research demonstrates a strong connection between the threat deportation (deportability) and abjection, deportable migrants may also develop strategies (e.g. religious participation) to work around state controls. Jamaican family relations spiritual practices emphasise intersubjectivity. This paper presents intersubjective ethnographic conducted (formerly) partner, among Jamaican-born Rastafari men migrated UK in 1990s as young adults. Restrictions against working during appeals leave options idleness, odd jobs informal economy or crime (typically selling drugs). find discipline required survive deportability through spirituality engage variety bodily rituals generate positive energies, which help them remain calm healthy. Vigilant attention manners dress are essential raising social (and financial) capital road. case reveals need further expansion into hostile environments from perspectives that explore diaspora families. ‘L’environnement pour les du Royaume-Uni des effets désastreux sur personnes d’origine africaine et caribéenne, en particulier celles qui ont été menaces d’expulsion. Alors que certaines recherches démontrent un lien fort entre la menace d’expulsion (déportabilité) l’abjection, déportables peuvent également développer stratégies (par exemple participation religieuse) contourner contrôles de l’État. Les familiales pratiques spirituelles jamaïcaines mettent l’accent l’intersubjectivité. Cet article présente travail ethnographique mené avec partenaire recherche (anciennement) expulsable, parmi hommes rastafaris nés Jamaïque ayant émigré au dans années 1990 tant jeunes adultes. restrictions concernant le pendant appels à l’expulsion laissent ces choix l’oisiveté, boulots d’économie informelle ou criminalité (généralement vente drogues). trouvent necessaire survivre spiritualité s’engagent une variété rituels corporels générer énergies positives, aident rester calmes bonne santé. Une vigilante aux bonnes manières tenue vestimentaire est essentielle se constituer (et financier) route. Le cas révèle nécessité davantage environnements hostiles partir intersubjectives explorent déportabilité familles diaspora. ‘She tries keep her head up high putting smile face, pain sufferation she continues taste. I say one year gone, pray he’s doing fine, two gone not letter dime, three oh she’s worried mind but don’t know, prison time. He was devil’s work, received pay, his so-called friend abandon him way, what can he write her, say? Deportation, wait judgement day cracking inside, you feel isolate himself, life ain’t same, rings gold chains all down drain. Mama taught well, so gonna blame?’ dub poem presented above composed recited by man Jamaica called ‘Remy’ recorded ‘on road’ Brixton, (a district London) my close partner ‘Features’ (also Jamaica) part an project. ‘The has negative connotations British popular imagination. For example, 2011 Channel 4 drama series ‘Top Boy,’ depicts London council estate life, being synonymous engaging violent, gang-related activity. However, middle-aged elder Jamaicans like Remy Features, ‘road men’ possess ‘street smarts’ able make living money-making opportunities (licit sometimes illicit) they encounter networking, usually at night. road networking site migrants, recording Remy’s it important how (i.e. deportability) impacts migrant lives. Although Features became due shared interest healing, our partnership formalised because something else we common: personal hardships each experienced nature immigration policies. Intersubjectivity – experience conscious minds central feature life. As argued elsewhere (Waldstein 2016), focus body enhances production knowledge, helps makes sense experiences embodied In this removal made possible knowledge about environment. suggests when explored perspective, injustices both citizens revealed. only implications reform policies (in elsewhere) highlights anthropologists using methods ethnography. active creation ‘illegal’ immigrants public policy since 2012 (Wardle Obermuller 2019), making increasingly difficult open bank accounts, rent property access medical care 2019). roots go back long before 2006 there changes law expedite ‘foreign criminals’ UK; threshold criminality lowered, while ties length stay no longer carry much weight once did (de Noronha particularly including permanent settlement (or even citizenship) lack proper documentation, addition individuals criminal records overstayed visas. Due policies, many elders Commonwealth countries entitled settlement/British citizenship denied their rights claim benefits, and/or healthcare. Many detained deported. These were cast spotlight news ‘Windrush scandal’ international headlines 2018. Windrush generation came 1940s–1970s distinct ‘newcomer’ generation, late (Reynolds 2012) paper. government publicly apologised pledged affected members secure documentation prove right settlement. defend other foreign nationals (many whom wave migration), children spouses coronavirus pandemic. next section contextualises anthropological within relevant literature (Jamaican) intersubjectivity spirituality. Then, after describing drew (inter)subjective methodological strategy collecting data, present main findings research, divided sections. first returns themes (family expect remittances, pressure take illicit precarious friendships, anxieties related potential deportation) structure description under followed material role coping conclusion reflects histories myself highlight shaped different positions hold society. environments, gain approaches distinguishes (removal deemed ‘in good’) administrative persons legal entitlement remain). Thus, process expulsion generally reserved convictions, if granted (Hasselberg 2015). Deportation extends removal. It lived continuously binds together deportees, families, agents, lawyers, judges, security/airline personnel activists (Drotbohm Hasselberg Unlike itself, experiencing removal) does necessarily exclude physically, instead includes socially, conditions protracted vulnerability (De Genova 2002). There evidence extend legally settled (Basok al. 2014) destination country (Luibheid 2018). Deportability theorised affectively charged condition (Reeves 2015) increases risk developing mental physical health issues (Willen 2007; Drotbohm 2015; Reeves Scholars Willen Gonzales Chavez demonstrated abjection characterised worry stress. be ways live fear detected (see 2007), others stuck limbo uncertainty await outcome UK, waiting allowed community permitted work. might encourage ‘voluntarily’, typically happens fact, way periods intimate citizens. Luibheid (2018) show, undocumented draw diverse support, beyond recognised state. fictive kin, common-law partners godparents etc. authorities, building networks supports wellbeing belonging traditional healthy eating local healthcare resources flow such 2017). Jamaica, understand human reproduction sharing blood substances) kin altruistic relationships, Sobo describes, ‘it virtue one’s substance self; deepens meaning notion self-care involves caring kin’ (1993: 56). perspective relationships reflected transnational support networks, source ensnared complex multifaceted. Research shows male ‘newcomers’ frequently established female strengthens intergenerational, ties, gendered pattern these contributes distrust more 2012). Religious another affirmation migrants. Spiritual refers mitigating deportability, (Guzman Garcia Among Zimbabwean asylum seekers detention centres, Biblical narratives play affirming detainees’ humanity asserting Britain (McGregor participants study States felt ‘invading’ belong to, justified presence idea God created earth thus places available Christians Likewise, follow lifestyle see themselves deserving wherever choose live, challenge grounds borders man-made conflict Divine highly individualised flexible 2017), ‘religious space’ described fluid (Chivallon 2001). Austin-Broos (2020) explains, course 20th century Pentecostalism superseded Baptism Jamaica’s most religion, reflecting increased individualism, urbanisation transnationalisation. Pentecostal church dominant force Toulis (1997) argues construction new identities negotiate mainstream representations Caribbeans Chivallon (2001) reminds us boundaries religions bring Pentecostals denominations Rastafari, peoples. (Pentecostal otherwise) diaspora, substantial 2020). stereotypical image dreadlocked, cannabis-smoking Rastaman appears directly oppose mother figure, common. similarities practice language understanding revelation involve resistance status quo (Austin-Broos early ethnography England, Cashmore (1983) describes movement restricted troubled youth men. Today women families well represented events attended over years. Not earned respect compatriots food shops, market stalls Reggae performances, its culture illustrated BBC children’s programme ‘Rasta Mouse’). Pan-African socio-political indigenous Jamaica. Reparations trans-Atlantic slave trade (including repatriation Africa) political aims movement, sovereignty organically produced minimally processed vegan foods, alternative medicines herbal remedies healing) components lifestyles. Central ritual grounding, Yawney (1978) defines occurrences groups smoke cannabis together. dissolution self other, verbalised, acknowledged non-verbal telepathy) 2016). used resource. seeds planted several years implemented openly. 2009, four academic contract, curt, one-page Home Office informing me application renew permit had denied, any UK. If plans appeal), dependents would ‘removed States’. penalised applying error) Child Benefit birth daughter. Six months nearly £4000 fees later, tribunal upheld appeal, never same. book Mexican until understood own fully appreciated certain stresses manifest anxiety, nausea, general dis-ease’ 2017: 47). (as completed naturalisation citizen), met disclosed similar issues, healing England. After won appeal 2015, publication Guardian 2016 (Holbourne, 2016) unlawful deportations inspired successful small grant applications, June 2017 February 2018 formally employ assistant. foundation friendship spans years, spent significant amounts time other’s lifeworlds countless hours reasoning style discourse, Waldstein 2020) respective funding project co-produce based. Our took place primarily Norwood parts south boroughs Lambeth, Southwark Croydon, relatively large populations. Rather than recruiting institutional settings, previous 2015), wanted investigate everyday ‘at home’ road’. meant temporarily moving flat sublets in-law, third floor tower block near Junction. area mainly residential street closes 10 pm rail station connects London. shops Junction reflect multicultural area, takeaway, barber patty shops. Also, supermarket carries products Irish moss ‘strong back’, greengrocers yam, dasheen, coconut plantain. weekends summer enough shopkeepers recognise face start chatting me. appealing/have appealed orders reach, researchers of) communities, ‘keeping business oneself’ (Heal few willing share stories Greater London, order collect interview data out often invited accompany projects 2020), too dangerous killing Rashan Charles black father) police July 2017, led violent protests. And, still meet day, already suggested short, structured best reassure affiliated police. decided protocol could administer own, nights Initially, began two-hour asked questions Features’ story. gave type information looking five captured themes. added additional questions, ran interview. lot detail story left answers capture uses cope 20 minutes. speed interviews voice invest research. reluctant do recorded, interview, happy discuss directly) included study. We collected history contributions form photography poetry) men, aged 35–57, 15–25 All identified fathers born (ranging minor traffic offences drug convictions) detention. conducting interviews, assisted transcription interpretation recordings, analysis. initial rough transcripts listened recordings complete transcription. involved helping better Patois, elaborated raised informants, deepened participants’ worlds. world faced it. To protect identities, pseudonyms conversations composites actual participants. opening loved ones home migration gendered, kinship caregiving norms, women’s desire respectability nuclear provided father cared mother), men’s concern reputation (sociability peer groups, generosity toward friends fathering lots children). feminine narrative focuses sustaining economic obligations family, masculine displays individual economic/social achievements (Olwig Like Jamaicans, expected provide and, possible, relatives ‘Kush’ struggle all-consuming: ‘Well affect whole heap, number getting things so, little should save now, spend kids now past worst things, heap struggles.’ circumstances taking ‘the work’ illicit/immoral work) family. Without formal permission intermittent) employment, cultivating contacts road, ‘hustling’. Wardle (2002) ‘hustling’ just component economy, use term refer kind employment. conversation doctoral States. curious finished listing (poultry factory worker, waitress, maid, gardener, cook), replied ‘oh hustling us’. sense, hard, means necessary, ends meet. ‘Pizzle’ explains it’s ‘kinda I’m solider, nothing come easy got put hand wheel is, good rough, shizzle’. Hustling entail pay cash-in-hand. ‘you documents cash know wrong survive.’ cash-in-hand morally suspect, leaves vulnerable exploitation. ‘I bakery, nothing, get £3.50 £2.20 hour’, ‘Bubba’. Alternatively, commodities. folk culture, prohibition links drugs crack cocaine heroin), seen evil necessary survival Involvement leads considered place. ‘Len’ older brother sent him. His pressured away passport. Len visa eventually convicted possession. evaded authorities released behaviour. By finally picked routine stop, (born women) depended Eventually, successfully based Article 8 Human Rights Act (the private life). Moreover, activities lead deportation, potentially crime. weekly reports (which entire day) trades restaurant otherwise permits. choice becoming idle dependent drugs. poem, associates betrayal ‘so-called friends’ ending system indeed, structural inequalities exacerbated cultural legacies hyper-individualism poor interpersonal trust intersubjective, rural (1993) contrast widespread seem actually you. didn’t door invite anyone suspicion others, less security avoiding jealousy people. ‘Bad mind’ motivations antipathy empathy 2018) wish bad think thoughts others. Bubba ‘England look 99 more, cos where dem can’t trusted, grow up’. Bad circular person expressing counteract direct person’s intentionality forms attack befriending slow, challenging rare. ‘Ziggy’ ‘for chess game pawns, alone, let fi course, mighty’. culmin