Cunning and Disorderly: Early Nineteenth-Century Witch Trials of Joseph Smith

Joseph Smith Jr. found himself in court many times throughout his life. Historians argue that problematic relationship with the law began 1826 when he faced disorderly person charges Bainbridge, New York. According to pretrial sources, some of Josiah Stowell's family members charged claimed have supernatural powers: Horace Stowell and Arad used seer stones see lost, stolen, hidden things seek treasure.1 An additional hearing followed 1829 Lyons, In 1830, a charge brought back same year, final took him Colesville, York.2 Since these events, there has been vigorous discussion over whether Smith's implication practices should disqualify prophetic claims. This framing sometimes overshadowed legal debates.3Previous attempts understand events assumed cases were built upon early examples anti-fraud legislation.4 The basis this interpretation is use word “pretended” allegations “juggling,” or sleight-of-hand, which appear both York's 1813 statute accounts proceedings. However, reading terms fraud may result from cultural misunderstanding between modern researchers their nineteenth-century subjects. For instance, Dan Vogel noted Justice Neeley, who oversaw case, was interested allegedly pretended powers not economic deception.5This article proposes trials about “pretended witchcraft magic”6 related thoughtcrime religion,” categories crime generated during Enlightenment categorize unorthodox religious traditions as while negating claims miraculous powers. defense really irrelevant because system categorized spiritual practice treasure seeking magic.To interactions statute, historians must evaluate historical trends associated legislative precedent contributed statute. comparative method standard studies for decades.7 Throughout analysis laws charges, I evidence life outside courtroom demonstrate fear motivated expressions suppressed later narratives persecutions. Evidence demonstrates conspiracies persecutions endured by echoes belief exemplified more than century earlier Salem, Massachusetts.The York persons statue belongs specific history aimed at magic witchcraft. Legislation policing seeking, stones, finding lost stolen items through gift God other means meant curb influence “the cunning-folk.”8 Cunning-folk folk-Christian healers whom authorities conflated “diabolical witches” Europe, an imaginary category people alleged renounce baptism swear loyalty devil war on Christendom.9 Folk-Christian beliefs covered range magical practices. King Henry Witchcraft Act 1542 marked earliest Anglophone legislation curbing seeking. Queen Elizabeth's 1563 repealed replaced Henry's subsequently superseded James 1604.10 All three intended control diabolical witch, but language reveals intent penalize cunning-folks’ also true acts passed British Isles.11 1692, Massachusetts colony act based 1604, explicitly targeted cunning-folk practices, including seeking.12 cornerstone all founded, eighteenth, nineteenth, twentieth centuries.The conversation around demonology informed legislation's development. Early demonologies Roman Catholic environment obsessed controlling heresy.13 These works fused ideas Bible, Patristic writings church, Lives Saints, Greco-Roman literature, classical poetry construct foundation “witch” stereotype. stereotype combined diabolized depictions popular fairy belief, folk-Christianity deemed superstitious authorities, heresy, concerns maleficium. Continental believers’ observances superstition living tradition witchcraft.14 tool could be abused against wide variety regardless content example, demonologist Nicholas Rémy woman whose completely orthodox still guilty witchcraft, witches imitating Elijah Elisha, using religion mask diabolism.15 Thus easily distorted into authorities.English appeared decades after English Reformation leaders led “a Henrician assault religion.”16 Fear carried North America, where Cotton Mather attributed rise England arrival Quakers, cunning-folk, Native American shamans.17 When Richard Boulton wrote one last significant England, paraphrasing Exodus 22:18, asserted, “wise Women are fit live,” without elaboration.18 He fully expected eighteenth-century audience anti-witchcraft law. At beginning Second Great Awakening, Ezra Stiles would preach sermon conflating activities did so “lay whole Iniquity open, remains it might rooted out.”19 Concerns witch continue world nineteenth centuries.20Belief witch” position fifteenth seventeenth centuries, detractors. Dutch physician Johann Weyer argued advantage imbalances humor black bile produce mental illness (melancholy). generate illusions deceived believing real efficacious.21 them necromancy, denied efficacy. skeptic Reginald Scott sorcerers pagan world, priests, cunning-folk—whom called “cozening witches”—all utilized sleight hand deception, actual demonic powers, lead idolatry deceive them.22 skeptical demonologists described religions, Catholicism, Christian enthusiasts, false prophecy, legerdemain, juggling, They remained vocal marginalized within sixteenth centuries.By eighteenth century, dominant view, came defined those power. included gypsies, Catholics, Indigenous peoples. charismatic Christians pejoratively labeled “enthusiasts.” Reverend Francis Hutchinson cited radical Protestants known French Prophets pretended. book minority, consistently power enthusiasm, pretended, juggling.23 George 1735 ended Scotland made England.24The developed broader had produced similar statutes Europe.25 first Edict reclassified crimes like poisoning, sacrilege, Notably, Protestantism penalized Protestant advocating religion.26 colonial state anti-vagrancy deviants Jesuits, Enthusiasts labeling vagabonds persons, then penalizing breaking vagrancy law.27Skeptical continued colonies United States century.28 drafted trend utilizing European legislation. relevant portion addresses defines “all jugglers [those cheat tricks extraordinary dexterity], . pretending skill physiognomy, palmistry, crafty science, tell fortunes, discover goods found.”29 much common product larger employed model.30 model preemptively unorthodoxy magic, religion. By categorizing people's allowed discriminate deliberately criminal deception.Legislation 1824 Punishment Idle Disorderly Persons, Rogues Vagabonds, Part Britain England.31 criminalized “every professing any subtle Craft, Means, Device, Palmistry otherwise, impose.”32 Owen Davies, clause “widely prosecuting rural cunning-folk.”33 Empire its former colonies, government genuine late twenty-first centuries.34Besides Smith, only well-known example prosecution America employs describe gifts—the Dr. Luman Walters.35 Walters's case due newspaper articles discussing documented Hampshire.36 Because notes trial available, impossible explore how century. But conviction we can Walters practices.37 Later necromancer reveal underlying bias witches.38Although tempting read fraud, reason cautious. Lynne Hume, “‘pretends exercise’ something else. presumption able do therefore whoever says they acting fraudulent manner.”39 previous generations, presuming witches. After Enlightenment, psychological process recategorize another enable spirituality. tells us does designed punish.Despite skepticism, lifetime beyond.40 repeal Ireland's 1586 inspired publication anonymous pamphlet Antipas, Catholicism Dissenters urged Parliament restrict groups’ activities. broad audience. As Andrew Sneddon explained, “for vast majority placed lower down social ladder, especially small, close-knit areas, existence malefic regarded threat property centuries. holds America.”41The doctrine believers environment, although no longer recognized reality. critic Alexander Campbell synthesized necromancy coexist two different kinds witchcraft.42 Campbell's pattern Awakening.43 Likewise, became primary target period.44 People feared false-prophets, Atheists, non-white movements Shakers, Wilkensonians saw most diabolical, often describing groups practicing necromancy.45 skepticism existed, expect find label well 1830.When young seeker, visionary experience, local reacted negatively ways considered surprising.46 age fourteen, unnamed assailant fired bullet returned home.47 1823, experienced envisioned visitation angel, declared prophet uncover buried scripture. Within year rumors circulate someone disinterred dissected older brother Alvin's body.48 Michael Quinn believe part body acquire golden plates. portrayed acquiring plates form necromancy.49 initial, failed, attempt crime. William Morain points out, “violating grave” felony offense which, 1824, incarcerated prison five years.”50 A later, 1825, heard stone, perhaps tied Joseph's 1823 vision angel gold requested reside home farmworker aid parents agreed, remove dangerous environment. trouble 1826, nephew person.51Allegations well, ascribed 1820s. 1834, testimonies neighbors anti-Mormon Mormonism Unvailed.52 affidavits paradigms affidavits, period 1830 hearings, Sophia Lewis, served Emma midwife, reported Emma's child died horribly deformed birth. Her affidavit notable witch's folklore viewed births stillbirth witchcraft.53 Shortly death, her parents’ Methodist church Harmony. attempted attend, sparked controversy members’ 1879 remembrances relatives clear involved believed “was conjurer” sorcerer,” clarifying forms “witchcraft.”54 congregation threatened violence forced move Peter Whitmer Sr. Fayette, York.55Beginning restorationism curses Old Testament Prophets, Jesus Apostles Testament. instructed missionaries followers employ ritualized dusting feet clothing testament persecuted rejected message. 1890s provided ample material witches.56 Allegations February 1831 “Delusions,” periodical Millennial Harbinger.57 article, uses familiar tropes compare directly compared Simon Magus Elymas, Bible.58 leaves room equivocation: “I never felt myself authorized address mortal man style Paul addressed Elymas sorcerer feel towards Atheist Smith.”59 During mobs pursued left Ohio.60 1832, “Delusions” reprinted pamphlet.61 Kirtland, potential seen mob attacked Sidney Rigdon 1832. While remembering event, recalled attackers cried out “Simond! Simond!” interpreted reference Campbellite leader Simond Riders. victim tumultuous mobbing Campbellites, misheard shouts “Simon! Simon!” comparing Magus. assaulted destroy ability speak (and prophesy, curse, bewitch). remembered shouting, “God dam Let tar up mouth!”62 simultaneously force “phial” liquid mouth. decided kill him, instead “scratch me well. my clothes torn off except shirt collar; fell scratched nails mad cat.”63 Afterward, scrub lips “breath easily.”64 overlooked scratching tragic gravity. “scratching above breath,” widely deactivating consequently aspect extrajudicial violence.65Echoes E. D. Howe publish Hurlbut work Unvailed. reads combination demonologies, paradigms. 1835, complained allegations.66 following recorded quest revelation encouraged companions “inquire diligently concerning ancient inhabitants founders city; treasures you city” (D&C 111:9–10). place Massachusetts, suggesting troubles point 1836 explained knowledge violence. 1837, enemy Grandison Newell accused attempting murder him. “high priest satan,” bewitched assassins stopped short murdering “broke spell prophet” “were restored right minds, now rejoicing co-adjutor stain souls horrible.”67 It enemies career.According standards established Alan Charles Edward Peters, sources materials studies.68 reliable archival documents consist records verified reproductions contemporary pamphlets.69 second type literary sources. require caution, recognizing authors’ biases shaped accounts, overshadowing actions accused. Nevertheless, utilize diabolism injected authors. third pictorial sources.70 1829, proceedings, bills fall records.71 We original sources.Two reconstruct Pearsall narrative Purple narrative. exists claiming recreate notes. 1872 subsequent version printed 1883 1886.72 purportedly authored memoir role notetaker pretrial. published 1877.73 Additionally, cases, written mother, friendly observers, rarity records. account letter Peace H. Noble, Colesville proceedings 1830.74 cautiously—the accurately reflect what court. include deliberate unintentional distortions events. trials, injection demonological stereotypes descriptions behaviors.The feature religiously persecuting cunning-folk. narrative, strong Smith's, followers’, father's beliefs. describes “Seer,” term themselves prophets.75 stones. affirms genuinely held beliefs: “Deacon others firmly it.” afterthought, “ward hired men were, professed be, believers.”76The narrative's description acquisition includes seeing particular set provides detail washed stone it. less perplexing Karl Herr, Pennsylvania cunning man. Herr theological justification washing before praying asking God's blessing stone.77 fits consecrating observed Mark Ashurst-McGee.78 stone. portrays stone's paradigm, “he possessed attributes Deity, All-Seeing-Eye,” repeating gifts “omniscient attribute.”79 account, defended son's “described very instances goods” “swore son mortified wonderful miraculously given search filthy lucre, equivalent earthly treasures, long-faced, “sanctimonious seeming,” said constant prayer Heavenly Father manifest His will marvelous trusted Son Righteousness day illumine heart boy, him.”80These divine recurring theme next witness Deacon Stowell, affirmed Jr., giving several junior abilities. “delineated circumstances necessary record,” abilities claimed, confirm words.” reports Neely questioned seer, “Do it?” “do it? no, matter belief: positively know true.”81The told fellow seekers “could obtained faith, accompanied certain talismanic influences. So, arming fasting prayer, sallied forth spot designated Smith.”82 influences likely amulets seekers, four owned.83 narratives, break protective proved unsuccessful, hints motivation quest: struggle sinners redemption purgatory.84 “After depth attained success, council spirit darkness called, resolved lack untoward emotions, cause failure.”85The alternates justifications behavior alternating diabolical.86 public perception systematically powered God. Demonologists refute commonly opinions arguing blasphemous Christianity disguising implicit pact devil. rather folk-Christians, activity witchcraft.Notably, relatively circumspect discusses give detailed nor details allow ethnographic record. details, motives activit