Cardiovascular Mechanisms of Exercise Intolerance in Older Patients with Heart Failure

Exercise intolerance, measured by peak oxygen consumption (V̇O2), is a hallmark feature of heart failure (HF). The effect compounded in the elderly HF patient aging-associated changes such as reduction lean muscle mass, an increase adiposity, and maximal rate peripheral blood flow with exercise. There non-linear V̇O2 age that accelerates later decades life. Peak further reduced due to central maladaptation from HF. Central mechanisms include impaired rate, stroke volume, contractility, increased filling pressures, blunted vasodilatory response. Peripheral endothelial dysfunction, muscles, skeletal oxidative capacity. This review presents focused update on leading aerobic capacity older patients.