Agricultural water management challenges in the Hunza River Basin: Is a solar water pump an alternative option?*

In the glaciated mountains of Upper Indus Basin Pakistan, glacier- and snowmelt- based irrigation systems have been established over several centuries to secure water for cultivation. However, these are now facing challenges, being sensitive climate change thus exposed resulting extreme events such as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) flash floods, also difficult terrain access paths, male outmigration, limited technical capacity a weak policy governance system. Hence, exploring potential options overcoming challenges irrigating arable barren land could lead economic prosperity environmental gains. A literature review, stakeholder consultation semi-structured questionnaire survey in two villages Hunza River basin was conducted synthesize information different domains. Information on system its sources, distribution/allocation system, adaptation strategies were collected, community preferences, an alternative technological package overcome irrigate land. customized solar lifting pump with efficient micro-irrigation piloted which proved be resilient. The is simple adopt, uses clean energy operation economically feasible, benefit–cost ratio 4.96 payback period around 11 years. Dans les montagnes glaciaires du bassin supérieur de l'Indus au un système d'irrigation basé sur glaciers et la fonte des neiges été établi pendant plusieurs siècles pour sécuriser l'eau culture. Cependant, ces systèmes sont confrontés à défis en raison leur sensibilité changement climatique son exposition aux événements extrêmes qui résultent tels que l'inondation lac glaciaire (GLOF) crues éclair, le chemin d'accès difficiles, l'émigration hommes, capacité technique limitée, faiblesse politiques gouvernance. Par conséquent, explorer potentielles surmonter irriguer terres arables stériles pourrait conduire prospérité économique gains environnementaux. Une revue littérature, une parties prenantes enquête par semi-structuré dans deux ont menées synthétiser informations différents domaines. Des ses l'eau, défis, stratégies d'adaptation collectées et, base préférences communauté, technologie mise place stériles. pompe solaire levage d'eau personnalisée avec ensemble efficace testée, ce s'est avéré résilient climat. Le est adopter, utilise l'énergie propre fonctionnement économiquement réalisable, rapport bénéfices–coûts 4.96, période d'amortissement d'environ ans. Hindu Kush Himalaya home (UIB) one most landscapes (Khan, 2013) perennial snow ice covering 20 000 km2 (Hewitt, 2011). glacier melt important hydrological processes contributing more than 70% streamflows (Ali al., 2015). UIB, at altitude where human settlement possible, therefore melts contribute significantly activities irrigation, hydropower drinking water. Irrigation dependent sector this region, since steep slopes strong currents makes river unusable. Therefore, agriculture possible only through channels diverting snowmelt (Sidky, 1993; Parveen Ninety-five per cent total cultivated area northern Pakistan heavily (kuhls) carrying meltwater (Velde, 1989). Gilgit-Baltistan, accounts up 48% farm income, followed by livestock (41%) forestry (11%) (World Bank, 2010). considered main component livelihood security, major activity. high generally categorized socio-hydrology, incorporates social natural sciences across various scales, provides flexible nuanced way dealing hazards (Nüsser, 2017). Various water-related disasters, distribution mechanisms, socio-economic developments other external shape socio-hydrological interactions (Parveen 2015; Nüsser, however, faces challenges. Frequently occurring (GLOFs), erosion sedimentation regularly impacting reduced capacity. Climate change, hand, has had significant impact ecosystem, affecting freshwater flows severely supply (Shaheen 2013), leading dwindling supplies seasonal shifts. For example, landslides subsidence moraine areas due increased frequently disrupted vital infrastructure valley Moreover, magnitude frequency projected increase future (Lutz 2016; Wijngaard 2017), would likely threaten agriculture-dependent livelihoods UIB. Limited (~2%) small landholdings (<0.73 ha) dominated subsistence-based agriculture, labour shortages higher outmigration (41%), insufficient research development, complex (labour capital intensive) network, government subsidies poor market linkages, population growth, demand, geographical location human-induced (Hashmi Shafiullah, 2003; Viviroli Kreutzmann, 2012; 2015) created stress mountain irrigation. instance, position expose certain degree risk Gilgit-Baltistan about 1.2% area, less available This accessibility much or lower sources. Around 2% cultivable wasteland that can brought under cultivation advanced measures (International Fund Agricultural Development (IFAD), inefficient management comprising unlined conveyance canals cause loss, thereby lowering yields. Subsequently, improvement corridor Karakoram Highway opportunities non-farm markets, development 2015), reduce communities’ interest local activities. To cope communities adopting both structural non-structural depending location, majority ad hoc. Water integrate knowledge culture adjusting harsh conditions reflecting communal structure (Kreutzmann, 2012). address supplying undisturbed water, International Centre Integrated Mountain (ICIMOD) along partners carried out in-depth study agricultural selected basin. innovative intervention demonstrated sustaining face region facing. part project entitled ‘Agricultural Water, Energy, Hazard Management Improved Livelihoods Resilience’. Prior intervention, comprehensively analysed, focusing history, glacio-hydrological their systems, methods management, use options. baseline discover preference improve livelihoods. After establishment midline assess viability intervention. 10 districts Province, located between 1391 7850 m (Qureshi 90% lying rain shadow Himalayas (Shrestha catchment 13 700 cover 3930 (Immerzeel divided into sub regions—Upper Gojal Lower (Baig, 2018), includes three peaks (Mts SistaghilSar, BaturaSar PassuSar) narrow watershed, framed slopes, having predominantly inhabited Wakhi-speaking people, while Shinaki Shina-speaking people considerable number Brushaki speakers. temperature village ranges from −11 29 0C, receives 150-200 mm annual rainfall, hence it arid (Rehmat, 2006). covers Hunza—Passu Morkhun—as seen Figure 1. Passu oldest Wakhi 2500 Batura 2012) 1168, Morkhun 2711 653 individuals (baseline survey). These because of: (i) availability large unirrigated riverbank Hunza; (ii) without any disputes; (iii) active participation, willingness assurance take care maintain system; (iv) plan pilot fruit orchard fodder fields. Both sites claimed free expert judgement. lie single cropping zone wheat potato cash crops maize barley grown crops. Orchards apricots, mulberry, peach, apples, poplar sea buckthorn villages. steps: situation assessment secondary data; intervention; assessment. Local organizations, mainly Aga Khan Agency Habitat (AKAH), consulted obtain disaster data intensive review information. household 2016. Data collected using questionnaire, sample size determined 95% confidence interval considering 5% margin error. households 143 86 105 71 Morkhun. then analysed Statistical Package Social Sciences (SPSS) tool, descriptive analysis (frequencies percentages) out. addition, field visits surveys team status historic Based this, solar-powered pumping location-specific modification IRR calculated evaluate efficiency tool does not depend application arbitrary discount (Asmon Rothe, IRR, implied rate measured equates present value benefits cost project, NPV becomes zero. evaluation criterion widely used determine formalized Fisher (1907). works basis all foreseen discounted costs revenue lifespan given project. Future deterministic measure, but many contributions devoted measure made assumption those uncertain related except initial order bring uncertainty flow account, factors calculation include increasing comparing pessimistic optimistic (Gaspars-Wieloch, 2019). indicators uncertainty. calculations done facts survival trees, wear tear equipment, fruiting time trees changes prices fruit, rate. Valley began least 1780, Glacier Zarkhon Hunza's geological ecological setting, constraints. hurdle constructing hydraulic structure, require great resources beyond entire village. Initially, localized developed farmers locally technology existed central Hunza, historically very small-scale network consisting Baltit-ill, Altit-gotsil Hamachi drained Baltit, Altit Ganesh existed. Crops draining drainage 1997). Later, established, upgraded extended rulers. Rulers back rivalries princely states new settlements rulers strength. basically linked political evolution history focus during Mir Silim regime (1790-1824) highly ambitious projects (e.g. Haligan-gotsil, Samarqand Ahmadabad-gotsil) initiated, stone tanks previously lands During regime, large-scale successfully his ability mobilize rule 1993). he initiated expansion 1989; comparatively plain flood moraines periphery resource. Salim's successors—Mir Ghazanfar (1841–1856) Ghazan (1865–1886)—also continued work smallholder settlements. Berbher canal largest channel serving was, after arrival British-supported Dogra administration 1890, until 1974. Later 1970s Z. A. Bhutto, Prime Minister formally abolished institutions. Bhutto Rural Project early aim farmers’ income 1980s, Support Programme (AKRSP) started 166 old develop one. AKRSP interventions integrated indigenous engineering canal; caused succeed earlier effected kuhls, constructed maintained jointly officials, crude intake Equal ensured traditional headman (trangfa) supervisor (darago) Some 221 kuhls Gilgit district identified WAPDA, however efficacy lacking They built either mud, wherein problems leakage soil exist. Gojal, Batura, Passu, Ghulkin Ghulmit diverted surrounding Zarabad Khuramabad whose intakes terminus glaciers. There five canals, namely nalah, Janabad, Lalzor, Khock Murarabad, settlements, Jana Abad (Figure 2). About 4 irrigated (Table 1). nalah canal, Glacier. 92 households, 99% melt/stream, 1% extracted/pumped electric motor gravity-fed techniques Farmers apply improved surface bed furrow ridge cereal vegetables, crops, orchards firewood plantations. 94% (n = 89) remainder method. orchards, 79% 88) methods, 16% methods. villagers, preferred terms saving, workforce ease crop productivity enhancement. Out 85 respondents, 77% reported effective, 1 14% respectively 8% responded efficient. lacked modern drip sprinkler lack awareness techniques. showed storage conservation practised whilst ponds store glacier—Tupopdon—through eight Qalhabar, Yuur, Rech, Abjaat, Tanzeem, Chukul Ghar, Jomolabad Sharshigduur 3), Jamal Abad. stream fed Tupopdan Boiber source including extraction river. community, 1.35 1.21 2), syphon Khunjrab River. 3.85 ha right bank; likewise, left bank 66% 67 extracted And irrigable gravity. Similar (bed furrow) orchards. i.e. 68% 63), 42% 50) effectiveness similar Passu; found operational. 55% 66) thought cost, intensive, 14 17% 6% respondents them effective loss evaporation, they save manual watering individual plants required. village; 34% 64) cement traditionally drinking. fluctuation June August there surplus, May July demand high. scarce period, needs equally distributed, managed group forming awater users’ association, diverse users, irrigators personnel system). Conversely, observed organizations playing prominent role securing financial help. areas, exists mechanism, committee representatives committee, regulated jirgah exist some kinds informal committees regulate manage issues regarding supply. When asked presence association (WUA), 83% 102 group, stated absence association. Morkhun, 76% groups, said no groups responsibilities resolve issues, equal variation roles solve allocation distribution, maintenance roles. validate obtained, we people's perception same, mentioned existence committees. 35% agreed representatives, disagreed 3). On distribution. unequal larger farms scarcity ensure participatory approach when establishing sources want 69% details provided Table 4. 23% continue existing resources, underground 3% rainfall groundwater might technically riverbanks seepage general, domestic common low-lying town few riverside (Ahmed Joyia, 2003). prone hazards, lives course decades. Flash landslides, sedimentation, GLOFs prevalent (Butz, Hill, impacted irrigation-based region. impoundments recorded (Hewitt Liu, 2010), accounting greatest disastrous incidents (about 339) (Ashraf It 47 lakes 2012), potentially dangerous lake. catastrophic flooding 1841 2012); dam burst 1884, 1893, 1905, 1906, 1927 1928 (Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI), 2008; Ashraf Attabad Lake formation rockfall 2010 (Zaidi 2013); advance Zharkhon them. exacerbated altitudes, pronounced high-altitude (Rajbhandari 2014; Ali Warming-induced melt, precipitation form debris downstream (Eriksson 2009). We tried identify site-specific components ensuring sustainability. inhabitants affected far 1873. Glacial advances surges 1910 1944 Shimshal formed times (i.e. four times); result frequent washed away 2010; scarcity, destroying drying mass lateral undercutting recent decades, disasters lakes, 2007 2008 (Din 2014). Five GLOF 2008, creating huge infrastructure, destroyed Murabadab occurred 1974, canals. 2009 Janabad productive 2011, Muradabad destroyed, 50 m2 eroded. experiencing fluctuations; literature. AKAH flood, erosion. event (flood/debris flow/streamflow erosion), took 2015, damage plants, eroded All 2015 event. Unlike together last 5–10 years,