Adverse effects of Diptera flies on northern ungulates: <i>Rangifer</i> , <i>Alces</i> , and <i>Bison</i>

Flies (Diptera) damage ungulates far beyond the injury of their bite wounds: they are vectors diseases and cause to lose foraging opportunities due avoidance behaviour. We can use behavioural physiological responses bison Bison spp. (Artiodactyla: Bovidae), caribou/reindeer Rangifer tarandus Cervidae), moose/elk Alces alces Cervidae) assess impacts flies on these ungulates. Ungulates rely morphological resistance at low intensities exposure. However, as fly exposure increases, begin react with in addition increasing response. highly sensitive respond quickly presence by behaviours that incur fitness costs through reduced body mass. less reactive exposure, enduring maintaining a loss fitness, sometimes dying from cumulative effects may facultative strategy depends upon prevalence associated environment. Among strategies, variables such type bite, degree infection, heritability affect individual host survival. Relationships between integrate multiple scales organisation ecosystem reflect system stability. Climate change is predicted alter species composition seasonal phenology wounding vector-borne disease ungulate populations central functions Arctic temperate ecosystems Northern Hemisphere.