In 2003, the United States launched a pre-emptive strike against Iraq which was largely defended by the Bush Administration as an act to protect national security. In the months leading up to the attack, however, the US was still in the decision-making process — should we work with the UN on enforcing sanctions? go in only with Allied support? launch a pre-emptive strike with mainly US forces? ...

Preparing for a biological attack involves analysing and co-ordinating information and events in the scientific, political and social arenas. The information that must be evaluated is, by definition, incomplete. It is not surprising that such interactions have regularly resulted in erroneous conclusions and flawed interventions. This historical survey examines instances where significant errors...

contrary to president obama’s stated position in november 2009, it is presumed here that the islamic republic intentionally procrastinates normalization of its foreign policy towards the u.s. this intentional delay is due to mutual mistrust existing between the two states. nonetheless, the islamic republic is determined to avoid further confrontation with the u.s. in this respect, the islamic r...

superpowers write the international dramatics, stage manager and carry out it but they ignore whenever these principles and normatives do not provide their interests. the main core of neo-realists reasoning is that nuclear superpowers are much dangerous and more threatening than small powers. this article tries to indicates that us. and israel in spite of the fact are nuclear states and ignore ...

Valganciclovir is equally efficacious in preventing CMV disease when used as prophylaxis or as pre-emptive treatment (Level 2 evidence but not designed for this outcome) Pre-emptive treatment of CMV infection results in significantly less leukopenia than prophylaxis, however, there is no difference in other adverse events. Pre-emptive treatment with 1⁄2 dose ganciclovir and 1⁄2 dose foscarnet r...

We critically review the methodological practices of two research programs which are jointly called ‘neuroeconomics’. We defend the first of these, termed ‘neurocellular economics’ (NE) by Ross (2008), from an attack on its relevance by Gul and Pesendorfer (2008) (GP). This attack arbitrarily singles out some but not all processing variables as unimportant to economics, is insensitive to the re...

BACKGROUND CMV disease remains a major complication of lung transplantation and attempts to prevent it have met with marginal success. In a previous study we documented that universal prophylaxis did not prevent CMV disease but merely delayed it, and was very costly. METHODS We compared the efficacy and cost of pre-emptive therapy with ganciclovir, guided by CMV antigenemia, to that of histor...

Motivated by recent examples of collective effort on the war terror, we examine incentives that retaliation may produce for endogenous formation an international counterterror coalition. We show there are quite reasonable circumstances under which any nation is a target terrorist attack finds it desirable to be member coalition, holding choices all other nations as given. The join coalition gro...

the european countries' stances towards bush's pre-emptive war were hard. this has been caused by some factors; first, the political european tradition of balance of power in regional and international system is still continuing. second, the pre-emptive war has led to an increase of u.s mobility power in european security field. and at last the pre-emptive war has led to fractions and...

Pre-emptive kidney transplantation is considered the best available renal replacement therapy, but no guidelines exist to direct its timing during CKD progression. We used a national cohort of 19,471 first-time pre-emptive kidney transplant recipients between 1995-2009 to evaluate patterns and implications of transplant timing. Mean estimated GFR (eGFR) at the time of pre-emptive transplant inc...