Psychology considered as a natural science began as Aristotelian “physics” or “natural philosophy” of the soul. C. Wolff placed psychology under metaphysics, coordinate with cosmology. Scottish thinkers placed it within moral philosophy, but distinguished its “physical” laws from properly moral laws (for guiding conduct). Several Germans sought to establish an autonomous empirical Psychology as...

Dualism – The human brain and mind are separate. Known formally as Cartesian Dualism after it’s originator, the 17th century French philosopher René Descartes. Physical matter, including the body and brain, behaves according to the laws of nature, and is thus suitable for scientific investigation. The human mind (soul, self, or spirit), which controls human behavior, lacks physical substance--a...

We describe the A (1) 1 soliton cellular automata as an evolution of a poset. This allows us to explain the conservation laws for the A (1) 1 soliton cellular automata, one given by Torii, Takahashi and Satsuma, and the other given by Fukuda, Okado and Yamada, in terms of the stack permutations of states in a very natural manner. As a biproduct, we can prove a conjectured formula relating these...

Some formats of well-behaved operational specifications, correspond to natural transformations of certain types (for example, GSOS and coGSOS laws). These transformations have a common generalization: distributive laws of monads over comonads. We prove that this elegant theoretical generalization has limited practical benefits: it does not translate to any concrete rule format that would be com...

In opposition to the traditional conception of scientific laws as universal and exceptionless generalizations that hold everywhere and throughout all times, some philosophers of science have proposed the idea of a ceteris paribus law (CP law), i.e., a law that is true " all else being equal " , in the sense that it can admit of exceptions because of the influence of interfering factors. The leg...

ideas themselves are un-patentable "as they are the basic tools of scientific and technological work,"58 useful applications of these tools may be patent-eligible. A claim to a process that uses a natural law must "also contain other elements or a combination of elements, sometimes referred to as an 'inventive concept,' sufficient to ensure that the patent in practice amounts to 55 See supra no...

Background and Objectives: The Increase of unnecessary caesarean sections has become one of the serious concerns in some health systems. One of the seven packages of the health Reform Plan that was sent to all Iranian medical universities in 2014 was the "Promoting Natural Delivery (vaginal births)," It emphasized the need to reduce cesarean delivery and promot...

Recent studies on the laws and mathematical constraints of software have resulted in fundamental discoveries in computing and software engineering toward exploring the nature of software. It was recognized that software is not constrained by any physical laws discovered in the natural world. However, software obeys the laws of mathematics, cognitive informatics, system science, and formal lingu...