– A focal infection is a localized or generalized infection caused by the dissemination of microorganisms or toxic products from a focus of infection in various organic districts, including the oral district. In the Part 1 of this two-part review article, after historical signs, the Authors describe the current pathogenic concepts like the “immuno-allergic theory” and the formation of auto-anti...

Background. It has been proposed that infection by group A -hemolytic streptococci (GABHS) can trigger acute symptom exacerbations among patients with Tourette’s syndrome (TS) or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), via autoimmune mechanisms. Objective. To examine the temporal relationship between newly acquired GABHS infections (and other immunologic indices) and acute exacerbations of tics an...

Background: Catatonia is a unique syndrome characterized by specific motor signs, at times life-threatening when aggravated by autonomic dysfunction and fever, yet treatable if recognized early. Catatonia occurs in patients with various disorders including autism and related developmental disorders. Sometimes catatonia develops after severe psychological trauma, supporting the view that it is a...

Accumulating evidence suggests that Tourette's Syndrome (TS) - a multifactorial pediatric disorder characterized by the recurrent exhibition of motor tics and/or vocal utterances - can partly depend on immune dysregulation provoked by early repeated streptococcal infections. The natural and adaptive antibody-mediated reaction to streptococcus has been proposed to potentially turn into a patholo...

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating disorder for which the cause is not known and treatment options are modestly beneficial. A hypothesis is presented wherein the root cause of OCD is proposed to be a dysfunction of the gut microbiome constituency resulting in a susceptibility to obsessional thinking. Both stress and antibiotics are proposed as mechanisms by which gut microbio...

Several autoantibodies (anti-dopamine 1 (D1R) and 2 (D2R) receptors, anti-tubulin, anti-lysoganglioside-GM1) and antibody-mediated activation of calcium calmodulin dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) signaling activity are elevated in children with Sydenham's chorea (SC). Recognizing proposed clinical and autoimmune similarities between SC and PANDAS (pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric diso...