Even by their simple presence, people can discourage crime from happening at specijic times and places. Such direct-contact discouragement can occur when "guardians" keep an eye on potential crime targets (Cohen and Felson, 1979), or when "handlers" do the same for potential offenders (Felson, 1986). Eck (1994) adds a third type of discouragement role: "managers" who monitor places. Eck present...