Vaccine adjuvants induce innate immune responses and the addition of adjuvants to the vaccine helps to induce protective immunity in the host. Vaccines utilizing live attenuated or killed whole pathogens usually contain endogenous adjuvants, such as bacterial cell wall products and their genomic nucleic acids, which act as pathogen-associated molecular patterns and are sufficient to induce adap...

Most infectious agents use mucosal tissues as entry portals, thus, mucosae are frequently defined a first line of defense against pathogens. Mucosal protection generally operates through antibody-mediated and cytotoxic T-cell responses which can be triggered by vaccines. Sublingual vaccination provides many advantages such systemic (both locally at remote sites), besides being needle-free admin...

The induction and maintenance of long-term CTL memory at mucosal surfaces may be a critical component of protection against mucosal pathogens and is one goal towards development of effective mucosal vaccines. In these studies we have functionally evaluated short and long-term CTL memory in systemic and respiratory or genital-associated lymphoid tissues following mucosal or systemic routes of im...

Development of mucosal vaccines strongly relies on an efficient delivery system and, over the years, a variety of approaches based on phages, bacteria or synthetic nanoparticles have been proposed to display and deliver antigens. The spore of Bacillus subtilis displaying heterologous antigens has also been considered as a mucosal vaccine vehicle, and shown able to conjugate some advantages of l...

Abstract Pseudorabies virus (PRV) is a double-stranded DNA with genome approximating 150 kb in size. PRV contains many non-essential genes that can be replaced encoding heterogenous antigens without affecting viral propagation. With the ability to induce cellular, humoral and mucosal immune responses host, considered an ideal potential live vector for generation of animal vaccines. In this revi...

A variety of techniques, including the use of live oral vaccines, have been used to deliver antigens to the gut-associated lymphoid tissues in an attempt to initiate production of specific secretory immunoglobulin A for protection against pathogens that colonize or cross mucosal surfaces to initiate infection. A number of attenuated Salmonella mutants are able to interact with the lymphoid tiss...

A large number of emerging pathogens, such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and influenza virus are mucosally transmitted and must cross mucosal barriers to infect the host. Thus, to induce a maximal protective effect, it is desirable to apply vaccines by the mucosal route where virus infections start. Mucosal vaccines administered either orally o...