The major challenge posed to all those seeking to explain semantic properties of natural language is the pervasive dependence on context for the way in which expressions are understood. This chapter surveys the emergence of formal models of semantics against the background of the new emphasis in linguistics during the 1950’s of formal modelling of grammars, and then details the way in which for...

Dengue is a mosquito borne disease caused by any of the four serotypes of dengue virus. Dengue 4 virus (DEN-4) was once the predominant serotype found in Malaysia causing up to 60% of dengue fever (DF) cases in 1960'sl. Since then, however, other serotypes notably DEN-2 and DEN-3 have become the predominant serotypes isolated among DF and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF) patients. DEN-4 made up o...

Transmission routes of pathogenic bacteria can be very complex and can include direct transmission from human to human, contact with environment, contact with animals, aerosol transmission, vectors, and food and water intake. Clostridium difficile was historically regarded as a typically nosocomial pathogen, and hospitalization was one of the main risk factors for development of C. difficile in...

In the paper by Ford et al (this volume, pp 472–478), the authors describe the results of an open label, retrospective study of a selective denervation for severe cervical dystonia (torticollis) in 16 patients refractory to injections with botulinum toxin type A. Using functional capacity scales they concluded that six (37.5%) patients had “a moderate or complete return of normal neck function”...

The number of reports in the literature on dengue outbreaks in various parts of south China is increasing. This trend is likely contributed to by multiple factors, chief among which is the increase in trade and human movement in and out of China from the Southeast Asian region where dengue is firmly endemic. However, a holistic picture of dengue in China and how the public health authorities ar...

In July and August 1994, an outbreak of Bolivian hemorrhagic fever (BHF) occurred among an extended family living in the city of Magdalena (1994 population estimates 5,300), Itenez Province, Department of Beni, Bolivia (see map). BHF, caused by the Machupo arenavilus, is known to be endemic only in Bolivia. The principal reservoir of the Machupo virus is the small rodent Calomys callosus. This ...

Syphilis is caused by infection with Treponema pallidum subsp. pallidum, a not-yet-cultivable spiral-shaped bacterium that is usually transmitted by sexual contact with an infected partner or by an infected pregnant woman to her fetus. There is no vaccine to prevent syphilis. Diagnosis and treatment of infected individuals and their contacts is key to syphilis control programs that also include...