This paper shows how the probability, for a random confounding factor to reverse the estimate of ordinary regression, decreases exponentially with the sample size.

In a previous paper, Russo et al. (2006), causality is considered in the framework of structural models, i.e. statistical models characterized by parameters that are stable over a large class of interventions or of environmental changes and that take into account background and contextual knowledge. From this statistical viewpoint, causality is defined in terms of exogeneity in a structural mod...

Confounding is examined from first principles. In follow-up studies a confounder is a predictor of diagnosing the illness--by being either a risk indicator or a determinant of diagnostic errors; in addition, it shows different distributions between the exposed and nonexposed series. In case-referent studies confounding can arise in two ways. A priori confounders are correlates of exposure in th...

Consideration of confounding is fundamental to the design, analysis, and interpretation of studies intended to estimate causal effects. Unfortunately, the word confounding has been used synonymously with several other terms, and it has been used to refer to at least four distinct concepts. This paper provides an overview of confounding and related concepts based on a counterfactual model of cau...

Confounding should always be addressed in studies concerned with causality. When present, it results in a biased estimate of the effect of exposure on disease. The bias can be negative—resulting in underestimation of the exposure effect—or positive, and can even reverse the apparent direction of effect. It is a concern no matter what the design of the study or what statistic is used to measure ...

In this article, the core concepts in Thomas Hobbes's framework of representation and responsibility are applied to question machine gap retribution gap. The method is philosophical analysis involves application theories from political theory ethics technology. A veil complexity creates illusion that actions belong a mysterious unpredictable domain, some argue unpredictability absolves designer...