Health reforms that emphasize public health and improvements in primary care can be cost-effective measures to achieve health improvements, especially in developing countries that face severe resource constraints. In their paper “Shanghai rising: health improvements as measured by avoidable mortality since 2000,” Gusmano et al suggest that Shanghai’s health policy-makers have been successful in...

Until now, mortality and spreading mechanisms of influenza pandemics have been studied only for the 1918, 1957, and 1968 pandemics; none have concerned the 19th century. Herein, we examined the 1889 "Russian" pandemic. Clinical attack rates were retrieved for 408 geographic entities in 14 European countries and in the United States. Case fatality ratios were estimated from datasets in the Frenc...

extended abstract 1. introduction security is the most important factor for improving of a city and it’s the initial needs of human. security and developing are mutual relationship that derived from planning and city management. insecurity feeling in the urban area, the activities of human have been eclipsed and economic, cultural, social acts couldn’t be done easily .however security is necess...

It is May, 1940. The Germans have just taken control of the northwestern portions of France; the resistance has fled south to various villages. Many questions arise: how should they organize? How will they share resources? How will they communicate? If they form large groups over many cities, communications and supplies may take too long to arrive. If their groups are too small, they may not ha...