Microbial recognition by multicellular organisms is initially accomplished by a group of pattern recognition receptors which are specialized to recognize microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) such as lipopolysaccharide, bacterial lipoprotein, CpG DNA motif, double strand RNA and flagellin. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are the representative pattern recognition receptors, and microbial rec...

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is an important health problem, affecting 13.3 million individuals/year. It associated with increased mortality, mainly in low- and middle-income countries, where renal replacement therapy limited. Moreover, survivors show adverse long-term outcomes, including risk of developing recurrent AKI bouts, cardiovascular events, chronic disease. However, there are no specific...

The discovery of mammalian TLRs (Toll-like receptors), first identified in 1997 based on their homology with Drosophila Toll, greatly altered our understanding of how the innate immune system recognizes and responds to diverse microbial pathogens. TLRs are evolutionarily conserved type I transmembrane proteins expressed in both immune and non-immune cells, and are typified by N-terminal leucine...

A bacterial infection that affects the periodontium in various ways is called periodontitis. Bacterial plaque triggers inflammatory response host, which damages host's tissue. In to microbial invasion, it now understood immune system uses a family of pattern-recognition receptors termed Toll-like as mechanism initiate an response. TLRs, or toll-like receptors, were first identified drosophila a...

INTRODUCTION TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS: KEY RECEPTORS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM The human body constantly encounters a diverse spectrum of pathogens. To defend itself, a complex immune system has evolved consisting of two subdivisions: the innate and the adaptive immune systems. The innate immune system constitutes the so-called “first line of defense” and acts through highly conserved germline-enc...

The Drosophila Toll receptor controls the immune response to Gram-positive bacteria and fungi by activating a signalling pathway partially conserved throughout evolution. The Drosophila genome encodes eight additional Toll-related receptors, most of which appear to carry out developmental rather than immune functions. One exception may be Toll-9, which shares structural and functional similarit...

Atherosclerosis is a disease characterized by inflammation in the arterial wall. Atherogenesis is dependent on the innate immune response involving activation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and the expression of inflammatory proteins. TLRs, which recognize various pathogen-associated molecular patterns, are expressed in various cell types within the atherosclerotic plaque. Microbial agents are a...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are membrane glycoproteins consisting of an ectodomain, encompassing tandem LRRs (leucine-rich repeats), a membrane spanning segment and a globular cytoplasmic Toll/Interleukin-1 Receptor (TIR) domain. They detect microbes on the basis of conserved Pathogen-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs). TLRs share molecular architecture and common ancestors with arthropod Tol...

Toll receptors are type I transmembrane proteins that play important roles in development and immunity in animals. Comparison of the genomes of mouse and human on one side and of the fruitfly Drosophila and the mosquito Anopheles (two dipteran insects) on the other, revealed that the four species possess a similar number of Toll receptors (approximately 10). However, phylogenetic analyses indic...