The term ulū’l-amr (those in authority) is central to the Muslim understanding of leadership, although it has been understood differently by different scholars. appears twice Qur’an, namely verses 59 and 83 chapter 4 (sūrat al-Nisā’), which serve as cornerstone starting point entire religious, social, political structure Islam. This article carefully examines early exegesis Qur’anic how two hav...

In this paper we study the possibility of providing causal explanations for preferred answer sets, as those obtained from logic programs with ordered disjunction (LPODs). We use a recently defined multi-valued semantics for answer sets based on a causal algebra and consider its direct application to LOPDs by several illustrating examples. We also explain the limitations of this simple approach ...

Models used for Model-Based Diagnosis usually assume that the inaccuracy of data is smaller than the precision with which the data is described. In some domains, however, this assumption is invalid. Observations may not be accurate or the behavior model of the system does not allow for accurate predictions. Therefore, the accuracy of predictions, which is a function of the accuracy of the obser...

This paper presents work on manual and semi-automatic normalization of historical language data. We first address the guidelines that we use for mapping historical to modern word forms. The guidelines distinguish between normalization (preferring forms close to the original) and modernization (preferring forms close to modern language). Average inter-annotator agreement is 88.38% on a set of da...

RATIONALE Cocaine dependence is characterized by compulsive drug taking that supercedes other recreational, occupational or social pursuits. We hypothesized that rats vulnerable to addiction could be identified within the larger population based on their preference for cocaine over palatable food rewards. OBJECTIVES To validate the choice self-administration paradigm as a preclinical model of...

People are often motivated to reach self-serving conclusions during judgment. This article examines how such self-serving judgment outcomes are influenced by preferences for different judgment strategies. Two studies tested how preferences for eager (promotion-oriented) versus vigilant (prevention-oriented) judgment strategies affected self-serving explanations for success or failure. Regardles...

Exposing rats to differential rearing conditions, during early post-weaning development, has been shown to produce changes in a number of behaviors displayed during adulthood. The purpose of the current study was to investigate whether rearing alcohol-preferring (P) and non-preferring (NP) rats in an environmental enrichment condition (EC), a social condition (SC), or an impoverished condition ...