All nervous systems are subject to neuromodulation. Neuromodulators can be delivered as local hormones, as cotransmitters in projection neurons, and through the general circulation. Because neuromodulators can transform the intrinsic firing properties of circuit neurons and alter effective synaptic strength, neuromodulatory substances reconfigure neuronal circuits, often massively altering thei...

Botulinum toxin is a safe and effective treatment option for axillary hyperhidrosis. Although its pathophysiology is not clear and somewhat controversial, the beneficial effect of neuromodulators in inhibiting localized sweating temporarily is well known. Before the procedure, correct identification of the affected area is mandatory to avoid wastage of drug and neglect of target areas, and to e...

At present a number of neuromodulators are found and their localization in the nervous system has been examined by using immunocytochemical technique. One of the most interesting topics in this field is a problem of the colocalization of multiple neuromodulators in single neurons. For example, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) coexists with acetylcholine (Ach) in single motor neurons inner...

Neuronal identity depends on the regulated expression of numerous molecular components, especially ionic channels, which determine the electrical signature of a neuron. Such regulation depends on at least two key factors, activity itself and neuromodulatory input. Neuronal electrical activity can modify the expression of ionic currents in homeostatic or nonhomeostatic fashion. Neuromodulators t...