Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are pattern recognition receptors that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns and are indispensable for antibacterial and antiviral immunity. Our previous report showed that ionizing radiation increases the cell surface expressions of TLR2 and TLR4 and enhances their responses to agonists in human monocytic THP1 cells. The present study investigated how ioni...

Background: Implantation is characterized by the interaction of two immunologically and genetically distinct tissues. The embryo differs from the cells of the mother, and would be rejected as a parasite by the immune system of the mother if it didn’t secrete immunosuppressive agents. Thus, immunological rejection of the fetus due to recognition of paternal antigens by the maternal immune system...

Candida albicans is a common, harmless yeast in the human digestive tract that also causes severe systemic fungal infection in hospitalized patients. Its cell-wall surface displays a unique glycolipid called phospholipomannan (PLM). The ability of PLM to stimulate tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha production by J774 mouse cells correlates with the activation of nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB. We ex...

Lyme disease is a long-term infection whose most severe pathology is characterized by inflammatory arthritis of the lower bearing joints, carditis, and neuropathy. The inflammatory cascades are initiated through the early recognition of invading Borrelia burgdorferi spirochetes by cells of the innate immune response, such as neutrophils and macrophage. B. burgdorferi does not have an intracellu...

TLRs have been implicated in promoting osteoclast-mediated bone resorption associated with inflammatory conditions. TLRs also activate homeostatic mechanisms that suppress osteoclastogenesis and can limit the extent of pathologic bone erosion associated with infection and inflammation. We investigated mechanisms by which TLRs suppress osteoclastogenesis. In human cell culture models, TLR ligand...

Background: Recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA) is usually defined as three or more consecutive pregnancy losses before 20th week of gestation. Although different factors are considered as etiology of RSA but in some cases, despite of extensive work up, the cause of RSA remains unknown which called unexplained RSA. Immunological factors are suggested as etiological factors of unexplained RSA. ...

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their downstream signaling pathways have been comprehensively characterized in innate immunity. In addition to this function, these receptors have also been suggested to be involved in the pathogenesis of many autoimmune diseases, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Murine in vivo models and human in vitro tissue models of RA have provided a wealth of information...

Female and male reproductive tracts are of interest sites to study of immune system because they encounter specific infections such as those are sexually transmitted. Furthermore, female reproductive tract is in close contact with allogenic sperms and transmitted microorganisms during intercourse and semi allogenic fetus during pregnancy. In mammals, there are two types of immune responses, the...