We review methods and data used for determining astronaut organ dose equivalents on past space missions including Apollo, Skylab, Space Shuttle, NASA-Mir, and International Space Station (ISS). Expectations for future lunar missions are also described. Physical measurements of space radiation include the absorbed dose, dose equivalent, and linear energy transfer (LET) spectra, or a related quan...

Environmental radiation permeates space, air soil, and water around us. It has been naturally present since the birth of Earth about 4.65 billion years ago in a massive supernova explosion creating the heavy elements on earth and the other rocky planets Mars, Venus and Mercury. Consequently, life has evolved in the ashes and remnants of this explosion which were gravitationally grabbed in space...

Light is known to exert radiation pressure on any surface it incident upon, via the transfer of momentum from light surface. In general, this force assumed be pushing or repulsive in nature. paper, we present a quantum treatment pressure. We show that interaction an atom with can lead both and attractive forces due absorption emission photons, respectively. An prepared excited state initially w...