Background: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) detect diverse pathogen-associated molecular patterns and play a critical role in the innate immune response. Hosts should activate TLR-signaling pathways to eliminate invading pathogens. However, excessive activation of these pathways may interrupt immune homeostasis, leading to several diseases. Therefore precise regulation of TLR-signaling pathways is e...

low glucose condition induces neuronal cell-death via intracellular mechanisms including mitogen-activated protein kinases (mapk) signaling pathways. it has been shown that low glucose medium decreases neuronal survival in cerebellar granule neurons (cgns). in this study, we have examined the activation of jnk, p38kinase and erk1/2 pathways in low glucose medium in cgns. the cgns were prepared ...

Information about the input and output pathways of higher-order brain neuropils is essential for gaining an understanding of their functions. The present study examines the connectivity of two higher-order neuropils in the central olfactory pathway of the crayfish: the accessory lobe and its target neuropil, the hemiellipsoid body. It is known that the two subregions of the accessory lobe, the ...

Thyroid cancer is a frequent endocrine related malignancy with continuous increasing incidence. There has been moving development in understanding its molecular pathogenesis recently mainly through the explanation of the original role of several key signaling pathways and related molecular distributors. Central to these mechanisms are the genetic and epigenetic alterations in these pathways, su...

Bone is formed through the processes of endochondral and intramembranous ossification. In endochondral ossification primary mesenchymal cells differentiate to chondrocytes and then are progressively substituted by bone, while in intramembranous ossification mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) differentiate directly into osteoblasts to form bone. The steps of osteogenic proliferation, differentiation,...

Membrane/ protein trafficking in the secretory/ biosynthetic and endocytic pathways is mediated by vesicles. Vesicle trafficking in eukaryotes is regulated by a class of small monomeric GTPases the Rab protein family. Rab proteins represent the largest branch of the Ras superfamily GTPases, and have been concerned in a variety of intracellular vesicle trafficking and different intracellular sig...

Introduction: Angiogenesis, the process of new blood vessel formation from pre-existing vessels, has important physiological roles in embryonic development, female reproduction cycle, and wound healing. It is also crucial for pathological processes in several diseases especially tumor growth and metastasis. Thereby, inhibition of angiogenesis as an addition to the conventional therapies such...

Almost half of cancer patients experience cachexia syndrome. Cachexic patients are at risk of increased side effects of chemotherapy, reduced tolerance to chemotherapy drugs, longer duration of treatment period, and decreased quality of life. Cancer cachexia is a multifactorial syndrome. Micro ribonucleic acid (miRNA), a “non-coding RNA”, is considered to be a risk factor of cachexia and muscle...