Understanding the effect of neuromodulators requires modeling the dynamics of second messenger pathways and their effects on channel properties. Chemesis is software for modeling enzyme reactions, stoichiometric reactions, diffusion, and ligand gating of channels and is used in conjunction with GENESIS, the software program for neuronal modeling. This chapter explains the differential equations...

Neuromodulators released during and after a fearful experience promote the consolidation of long-term memory for that experience. Because overconsolidation may contribute to the recurrent and intrusive memories of post-traumatic stress disorder, neuromodulatory receptors provide a potential pharmacological target for prevention. Stimulation of muscarinic receptors promotes memory consolidation ...

Synaptic transmission in neurons is a measure of communication at synapses, the points of contact between axons and dendrites. The magnitude of synaptic transmission is a reflection of the strength of these synaptic connections, which in turn can be altered by the frequency with which the synapses are stimulated, the arrival of stimuli from other neurons in the appropriate temporal window, and ...

Why do we so often fail to exert cognitive control, even though we are in principle able to do so? In this review, we begin to address this question by considering the contribution of the major ascending neuromodulators that are often implicated in cognitive control and motivation, in particular dopamine, noradrenaline and serotonin. Accumulating evidence indicates that cognitive control is sub...

A computer model of the musculoskeletal system of the lobster gastric mill was constructed in order to provide a behavioral interpretation of the rhythmic patterns obtained from isolated stomatogastric ganglion. The model was based on Hill's muscle model and quasi-static approximation of the skeletal dynamics and could simulate the change of chewing patterns by the effect of neuromodulators. 1 ...

In the auditory system of the big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus), paired conditioned tonal (CS) and unconditioned leg stimuli (US) for auditory fear conditioning elicit tone-specific plasticity represented by best-frequency (BF) shifts that are augmented by acetylcholine, whereas unpaired CS and US for pseudoconditioning elicit a small BF shift and prominent nonspecific plasticity at the same tim...

In severe hypoxia or ischemia, normal eupneic breathing is replaced by gasping, which can serve as a powerful mechanism for "autoresuscitation." We have proposed that gasping is generated by medullary neurons having intrinsic pacemaker bursting properties dependent on a persistent sodium current. A number of neuromodulators, including serotonin, influence persistent sodium currents. Thus we hyp...

The ghost knifefishes (family Apteronotidae) are one of the most successful and diverse families of electric fish. Like other weakly electric fish, apteronotids produce electric organ discharges (EODs) that function in electrolocation and communication. This review highlights the diversity in the structure, function and sexual dimorphism of electrocommunication signals within and across apteron...

The key trigger for Hebbian synaptic plasticity is influx of Ca into postsynaptic dendritic spines. The magnitude of [Ca] increase caused by NMDA-receptor (NMDAR) and voltagegated Ca -channel (VGCC) activation is thought to determine both the amplitude and direction of synaptic plasticity by differential activation of Ca -sensitive enzymes such as calmodulin. Ca influx is negatively regulated b...

Abstract Purposes of Review This review highlights the effect sex differences in sleep mediated memory consolidation and cognitive performance. In addition, role menstrual cycle fluctuating level sexual hormones (mainly oestrogen progesterone) are stressed. Recent Findings The literature indicates that mediate orchestrate observed performance females comparison with males a variety tasks can al...